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I  A,  MPT  ON 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 
iflf 


.      +    3 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

UNIVERSITY  W  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

ANOELES,  CALIF. 


THE    PEDAGOGY    OF 
PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


THE    PEDAGOGY 

OF 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

WITH     SPECIAL     REFERENCE 
TO      FORMAL      EXERCISES 


y  BY 

CT  WARD   CRAMPTON,  M.D. 

FORMERLY    DIRECTOR   OF   PHYSICAL   TRAINING    OF   THE    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS   AND 

SECRETARY    OF    THE    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS    ATHLETIC    LEAGUE 

OF    NEW    YORK    CITY 

Sometime  Director,  Dartmouth  and  New  York  University  Summer  Schools  of  Physical  Educa- 
tion; Dean,  Battle  Creek  Normal  School  of  Physical  Education. 

Winner  of  the  Gold  Medal  of  the  Olympic  Games,  1906,  with  the  thesis  "Recent  Advances  in 
the  Sciences  Underlying  Physical  Training";  Author  of  The  Folk  Dance,  Book;  Editor  of 
The  Cram]>ton  Ilyijiene  Scries,  etc.;  Chairman,  Committee  on  Physical  Education,  National 
Congress  of  Mothers  and  Parent-Teachers'  Associations;  Director,  Medical  Exercise  Clinic, 
Post-Graduate  Medical  School  and  Hospital,  New  York. 

Honorary  Member  of  the  National  Council  of  Boy  Scouts  of  America. 


PRINTED   IN   THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


COPYRIGHT,  1922, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  August,  1922 


Press  of 

J.  J.  Little  &  Jves  Company 
New  York,  U.  S.  A. 


"Therefore 

Glorify  God  in  your  body 
And  in  your  spirit." 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  designed  to  give  help  to  those  who  wish  to 
teach  physical  training.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  normal  school  students,  college  students  special- 
izing in  physical  training,  and  grade  teachers  who  desire 
to  equip  themselves  in  the  teaching  of  this  subject. 

It  is  the  result  of  twenty-five  years  of  the  teaching, 
study,  and  direction  of  physical  training. 

Practically  all  its  subject  matter  has  been  presented  in 
lectures  and  addresses  to  the  writer's  students  at  Dart- 
mouth College,  New  York  University,  the  University  of 
Southern  California,  and  the  New  York  and  the  Battle 
Creek  Normal  Schools  of  Physical  Education.  These  lec- 
tures have  been  repeated  by  the  writer's  students  and  as- 
sistants and  in  turn  set  forth  by  their  students  in  an  ever- 
widening  circle. 

Space  has  necessarily  limited  this  volume  to  formal  ex- 
ercise, as  the  consideration  of  the  various  forms  of  recre- 
ation and  their  appropriate  methods  of  teaching  is  a  large 
subject.  No  one,  the  writer  trusts,  will  judge  from  this 
fact  that  he  considers  formal  exercise  more  important 
than  informal  exercise.  Such  is  not  the  case. 


viii  PREFACE 

Throughout  the  volume  there  are  many  features  which 
are  new.  Some  of  these  are  fundamental,  such  as  the 
ptosis  theory  of  posture  with  its  static  exercises,  eleva- 
tion cues,  method  of  rating,  and  the  like;  and  the  day's 
order  or  lesson  plan.  Other  items  such  as  the  division  of 
introductory  work  and  formation  of  commands  are  devel- 
oped from  long-established  procedure  and  are  formulated 
in  a  new  way. 

The  writer's  experience  in  the  City  of  New  York,  in  in- 
troducing a  new  system  of  physical  training  to  be  taught 
by  twenty-two  thousand  classroom  teachers  under  the 
supervision  of  less  than  twoscore  assistants,  has  borne  in 
upon  him,  with  convincing  force,  the  fact  that  teachers 
must  be  given  methods  of  work  exceedingly  simple,  mani- 
festly productive  of  result,  and  honestly,  completely,  and 
powerfully  true. 

Whatever  has  been  presented,  it  is  the  author's  hope 
that  it  may  be  of  service,  that  nothing  shall  be  accepted 
upon  authority,  that  everything  shall  be  put  to  the  test 
of  use.  It  is  also  his  earnest  wish  that  students  and  teach- 
ers of  this  subject  should  always  be  students,  able  to  dis- 
cover such  faults  and  errors  as  may  exist  and  to  remedy 
them,  and  moreover  that  they  shall  be  stimulated  to  de- 
velop new  and  ever  better  methods  for  future  needs. 

While  reserving  full  responsibility  for  all  that  is  in  this 


PREFACE  ix 


volume,  the  author  gratefully  acknowledges  the  inspira- 
tion given  him  by  his  associates  in  physical  training  and 
by  those  in  education  and  medicine  whose  leadership  he 
has  been  glad  to  acknowledge. 


FOREWORD 

During  the  last  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  growing 
unanimity  of  ideals  in  physical  training.  Leaders  in  edu- 
cation, medicine,  and  physical  training  have  increasingly 
perceived  the  same  vision  of  common  human  needs  and 
in  seeking  to  meet  them  have  come  closer  to  each  other. 
There  has  been  less  thought  and  energy  given  to  the  de- 
fense of  preexisting  systems  or  methods  and  more  to  the 
meeting  of  actual  situations.  America  is  making  its  own 
system. 

During  the  war,  physical  training  became  intensely 
pragmatic,  for  the  need  was  great  and  immediate  and  no 
theory  stood  unless  by  the  proof  of  the  most  practical  use. 
There  exists,  however,  throughout  the  United  States,  a 
large  need  for  sound  doctrine  and  a  still  greater  need  for 
simple,  practical,  tested,  and  tried  methods  for  use  in  the 
classroom  and  gymnasium,  and  on  the  playground  and 
athletic  field. 

Beginning  with  the  State  of  New  York,  at  the  present 
writing,  fifteen  states  have  passed  compulsory  school 
physical  training  laws.  Others  may  follow  and  the  Fed- 
eral government  may  support  the  movement.  Scores,  if 


xii  FOREWORD 

not  hundreds,  of  normal  schools  have  added  physical 
training  to  their  curricula,  and  thousands  of  teachers  have 
been  called  to  give,  for  the  first  time  in  their  lives,  in- 
struction in  the  subject. 

The  industrial  world  is  realizing  that  work  is  a  human 
product,  that  men  and  women  who  labor  are  living  and 
breathing,  that  the  working  process  itself  is  motor  and 
subject  to  the  laws  of  physical  training,  that  the  efficiency 
of  the  worker  is  dependent  upon  his  health  and  happi- 
ness. To  the  capitalist  this  is  of  great  concern,  for  it 
means  dollars  and  cents;  to  the  laborer  it  is  of  greater 
concern,  for  it  means  life  itself. 

Progressive  industries  throughout  the  United  States  are 
calling  for  physical  training  in  all  its  various  forms  - 
recreation,  exercise,  shop  hygiene,  health  instruction,  rest 
periods  coupled  with  various  forms  of  social  management. 
In  the  future,  the  workers  themselves,  under  their  own 
direction  and  for  their  own  benefit,  will  lead  in  this  move- 
ment. 

It  is  therefore  clear  that  there  is  an  increasing  need  for 
physical  training  teachers.  This  is  well,  for  America  has 
had  a  severe  lesson.  Its  young  men  have  been  found  in 
large  proportion  unfit  to  fight.  The  nation  is  awakened 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  threatened  with  increasing  constitu- 
tional inferiority.  This  is  merely  an  evidence  of  the  effect 


FOREWORD  xiii 

of  civilization  upon  the  human  race  in  which  all  nations 
have  shared. 

The  defense  against  this  menace  will  be  found,  not  in 
staying  the  forward  progress  of  civilization,  but  by  adjust- 
ing it  better  to  the  human  race  and  adapting  the  human 
race  better  to  civilization.  This  is  biological  engineering; 
a  new  profession,  in  the  ranks  of  which  physical  training 
teachers  take  their  place.  Their  labor  has  a  significance 
of  paramount  importance.  The  profession  is  one  of  dig- 
nity, worth,  and  power,  and  the  teacher  of  physical  train- 
ing should  not  only  serve  it  well  but  seek  to  grace  it  with 
all  possible  personal  merit. 

However  well  grounded  in  correct  pedagogical  method 
the  teacher  of  physical  training  may  be,  his  teaching  fails 
unless  he  feels  the  high  worth  of  his  message.  His  teach- 
ing then  becomes  illuminated  and  warmed,  vivid  and 
alive.  The  writer  has  endeavored  not  only  to  help  his 
colleagues  forward  to  a  perfection  of  method,  but  also  to 
strengthen  comradeship  in  their  common  apostolic  mission. 

The  profession  of  physical  training  deals  with  the  inti- 
mate and  important  things  of  life  in  a  vital,  personal  way. 
For  the  last  several  years,  the  writer  has  given  his  stu- 
dents his  motto,  "Health,  Happiness,  and  Efficiency." 
(Some  unknown  genius  in  a  recent  graduating  class  con- 
tracted it  into  the  chemical  formula  H2E.)  These  three 


xiv  FOREWORD 

desiderata  are  intimately  related.  The  first  two  are  basal 
to  the  last.  Health  is  the  prime  consideration;  Happi- 
ness is  at  once  its  motive,  result,  and  guide;  Efficiency, 
its  incentive  and  test.  The  physical  training  teacher's 
merchandise  is  therefore  most  precious;  he  dispenses  gifts 
rare  and  fine.  In  so  doing,  he  should  not  fail  to  remem- 
ber that  example  is  the  most  convincing  form  of  instruc- 
tion, and  that  he  should  exemplify  personally  the  three 
physical  training  ideals. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AS  A  PROFESSION     ....  1 

II.   THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER 6 

III.  THE  LESSON  PLAN 21 

IV.  COMMANDS 30 

V.   INTRODUCTORY  WORK 45 

VI.    CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE       ...  66 

VII.   EDUCATIONAL  WORK 126 

VIII.    EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES 152 

IX.    REMEMBERING        167 

X.    HYGIENIC  WORK 183 

XI.    RECREATIVE  WORK 211 

APPENDIX  I 213 

APPENDIX  II 232 

INDEX  253 


XV 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL 
TRAINING 

CHAPTER  I 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AS  A  PROFESSION 

1.  General  Definition  of  Physical  Training.  -  -  Physical 
training  is  the  training  of  body  and  mind  by  motor  work. 
This  broad  definition  includes  certain  forms  of  physical 
training  which  in  practice  are  preferably  considered  as 
separate  subjects,  such  as  drawing,  manual  training,  and 
the   like.      In   addition,   however,   the   term   properly   in- 
cludes certain  activities  directed  toward  the  maintenance 
and  preservation  of  health,  such  as  hygiene,  physical  ex- 
amination, and  medical  inspection.     It  embraces  physical 
culture  and  physical  education,  which  are  terms  of  more 
restricted  significance,  the  former  referring  properly  only 
to  higher  physical  training,  the  latter  preferably  to  the 
pedagogical  phase   of  the   subject.      Folk   dancing,   story 
gymnastics,  games,  athletics,  and  gymnastics  are  likewise 
included  under  physical  training. 

2.  Purpose   of   Physical  Training.  -  -  The  purposes   of 
physical  training  are  to  insure  good  health,  to  increase 


2  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

vigor  and  mental  and  physical  efficiency,  and  to  promote 
neuromuscular  and  psychomotor  education. 

The  tendency  of  civilization  in  its  daily  occupations  is 
more  and  more  away  from  motor  work.  The  individual 
must  perforce  adapt  himself  to  his  age  and  to  the  condi- 
tions of  his  environment,  and  must  often  in  following  his 
profession  or  calling  live  an  inactive  life.  For  this  reason, 
physical  training  in  the  schools  is  constantly  increasing  in 
importance,  since  it  affords  a  means  of  establishing  a 
sound  physical  foundation  and  an  opportunity  for  teach- 
ing the  importance  of  health  in  its  relation  to  life,  as  well 
as  an  opportunity  for  giving  instruction  as  to  how  health 
may  best  be  conserved.  Through  repeated  exercises  care- 
fully selected,  the  body  is  built  up  and  developed  and  is 
taught  to  accustom  itself  to  energetic,  effective,  econom- 
ical movement. 

Organic  development  does  not  achieve  this  result 
alone.  Alertness  and  inhibition,  two  of  the  major  aims 
of  physical  training,  are  mental  and  not  muscular  quali- 
ties. Accuracy  is  both  mental  and  physical.  Toward 
the  development  of  these  important  attributes  much 
of  the  work  upon  the  body  is  directed.  Indirectly 
through  its  effects  and  directly  in  its  recreative  aspects, 
physical  training  adds  to  the  stock  of  human  sanity 
and  of  human  happiness. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AS  A  PROFESSION  3 

3.  The  Teaching  of  Physical  Training.  —  As  a  profes- 
sion, physical  training  is  at  once  one  of  the  most  attrac- 
tive and  most  exhausting  of  those  branches  of  education  in 
which  the  opportunities  for  service  continually  tempt  the 
teacher  to  excessive  labor.    It  is  also  one  of  the  most  use- 
ful and  dignified  branches. 

Dealing  as  it  does  with  the  health  and  vigor  of  the 
human  race,  it  has  assumed  a  responsibility  in  the  main- 
tenance of  the  very  structure  of  civilization.  Upon  its 
success  depend  the  immediate  welfare  and  happiness  of 
the  children  whom  it  directly  affects,  their  efficiency  and 
bodily  integrity  throughout  life,  and  the  physical  sound- 
ness of  generations  to  come.  The  Chinese  have  a  saying, 
""If  you  would  have  your  words  last  a  century,  carve 
them  upon  marble;  if  you  would  have  them  last  forever, 
carve  them  upon  the  heart  of  a  child."  The  man  or 
woman  who  seeks  to  devote  a  life's  labor  to  the  lasting 
good  of  mankind  may  well  choose  physical  training,  for 
there  is  no  worthier  work  to  do. 

4.  A    Survey   of   the   Field.  -  -  The    field    for    physical 
training  teachers   is   diverse  and  growing.     The  student 
will    find    it    expedient    to    acquaint    himself    with    the 
various    aspects   of    the   profession  as    early   as    possible, 
so  that  he  may   the   better    direct  his   preparation   and 
study. 


4  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

In  the  elementary  schools  of  the  cities,  supervisors  go 
from  school  to  school  to  instruct  class  teachers.  The 
tendency  is  toward  placing  trained  teachers  in  each 
school.  There  is  the  greatest  need  of  competent  teachers 
for  the  higher  positions.  In  the  rural  districts  there  is 
at  present  little  development  along  physical  training  lines. 
In  the  future,  supervisors  who  know  the  special  needs  of 
the  country  school  will  be  required,  and  every  teacher  in 
such  schools  will  be  expected,  to  know  as  much  about 
physical  training  as  about  any  other  subject. 

In  high  schools,  special  teachers  are  needed.  In  both 
country  and  city,  thorough  and  comprehensive  training 
in  all  branches  of  the  subject  is  necessary  to  equip  such 
teachers  properly.  In  the  country,  athletics  is  still  fre- 
quently the  only  form  of  physical  training. 

There  is  an  urgent  demand  in  training  and  normal 
schools  for  competent  teachers  who  have  become  efficient 
in  their  respective  fields. 

Private  schools,  and  such  special  institutions  as  truant 
and  reform  schools,  schools  for  the  crippled,  blind,  deaf, 
and  mentally  defective,  are  rapidly  taking  up  physical 
training,  and  are  seeking  teachers  of  ability. 

Playgrounds  of  all  sorts  —  winter  and  summer,  school, 
park,  and  private  —  are  increasing  in  number  and  im- 
portance. That  they  fail  with  untrained  teachers  in 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AS  A  PROFESSION  5 

charge  is  now  generally  recognized,  and  the  demand  for 
proper  instruction  is  growing. 

Settlements  and  community  and  social  centers  require 
the  service  of  physical  training  teachers,  and  such  in- 
structors have  excellent  opportunity  to  develop  a  broad 
social  leadership. 

In  commercial  and  industrial  circles,  vocational  train- 
ing receives  much  attention,  and  vocational  teachers  who 
can  also  teach  hygiene  are  much  needed.  Welfare  depart- 
ments are  organized  in  many  industrial  plants.  In  these, 
physical  training,  hygiene,  and  recreation  are  important 
factors,  and  the  teacher  with  good  training,  who  is  im- 
bued with  the  spirit  of  social  service,  has  opportunity  for 
gratifying  advancement. 

In  short,  no  good  teacher  of  physical  training  need  seek 
long  for  employment,  and  no  one  who  wishes  to  advance 
will  find  greater  opportunity  than  in  this  field. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER 
I.   MENTAL  EQUIPMENT 

1.  The  Teacher's  Ideals.  -    The  most  important  item 
in    the   equipment   of    the  teacher  is  purpose  —  purpose 
founded  upon  a  clear  understanding  of  the  high  intrinsic 
value  of  physical  training  and  upon  the  knowledge  of  its 
service  to  the  world.     With  the  assurance  of  the  worth  of 
the  endeavor,  should  come  a  devotion  to  service  as  a  fun- 
damental   lifelong    policy.      The   consciousness    that   one 
belongs  to  a  group  of  people  who  make  better  living  pos- 
sible, adds  to  the  daily  work  a  dignity  which  raises  it 
from   routine  and  carries  the  teacher  over  times  which 
otherwise  might  seem  dull  and  uninteresting.      'The  man 
or  woman   who   does   work   worth   doing   is   the   man   or 
woman  who  lives,  breathes,  and  sleeps  that  work;     with 
whom  it  is  ever  present  in  his  or  her  soul;     whose  ambi- 
tion is  to  do  it  well  and  feel  rewarded  by  the  thought  of 
having  done  it  well.    That  man,  that  woman,  puts  the 
whole  country  under  an  obligation."   (John  Uuskin.) 

2.  The    Student   Attitude.  --  There   are   two   kinds   of 
teachers — students    and    laborers.      The    former    make 


THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER  7 

physical  training  a  profession,  the  latter  make  it  merely  a 
means  of  livelihood.  This  difference  in  attitude  causes  a 
corresponding  difference  in  results.  A  teacher  of  the  la- 
borer type  does  not  advance;  often  he  fails,  losing  posi- 
tion after  position;  often  he  slumbers  peacefully,  secure 
in  his  tenure  of  office.  Middle  or  old  age  and  waning 
physical  ability  unfit  him  to  continue  practical  teaching, 
and  he  has  not  fitted  himself  for  supervisory  or  adminis- 
trative work.  His  position  is  pathetic. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  teacher  of  the  student  type  is 
more  interested  in  getting  results  and  in  improving  his 
methods  than  in  watching  the  clock.  He  has  a  system  of 
his  own,  made  up  of  what  he  has  been  taught,  thoroughly 
tested  by  use  until  it  is  entirely  his.  The  student  always 
learns  from  his  classes  more  than  he  teaches.  He  knows 
that  what  he  learns  soon  perishes  if  it  is  not  recorded;  he 
keeps  his  normal  school  notebook  alive  and  up-to-date 
with  constant  additions;  he  joins  societies;  he  takes 
courses  of  lectures,  reads  magazines,  clipping  and  preserv- 
ing items  of  value;  he  experiments;  he  helps  younger 
teachers;  he  discusses  his  progress  with  others;  he  writes 
reports  and  publishes  articles;  and,  finally,  he  is  called 

upon  to  teach  others  how  to  teach. 

_/ 
This  progress  depends  upon  ability  to  speak  well  and 

to  write  well,  power  to  work  without  counting  the  cost 


8  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

or  estimating  the  reward,  interest  in  people  and  a  real 
desire  to  help  them,  and,  above  all,  upon  high  ideals. 

3.  Preparation  for  the  Profession.  -  -  The  teacher's  edu- 
cation, his  mental  training  for  the  teaching  of  his  subject, 
presents  various  aspects  and  makes  various  demands: 

a.  He  must  be  thoroughly  versed  in  his  subject.  It  is 
necessary  not  only  that  the  teacher  know  perfectly  what 
he  is  actually  to  teach,  but  that  he  should  also  have  tech- 
nical resources  far  beyond  the  daily  need. 

He  may  teach  from  a  book  or  a  syllabus,  but  he  should 
know  the  essentials  of  the  Swedish  Day's  Order,  German 
drills,  and  other  systems,  and  their  history.  Gymnastics, 
athletics,  games,  folk  and  other  dancing,  and  the  principles 
of  hygiene  are  to  be  mastered. 

In  addition,  the  fundamental  subjects  of  anatomy  and 
physiology  call  for  attention.  \Vith  the  elements,  at 
least,  of  these  branches,  the  teacher  should  carefully  fa- 
miliarize himself.  It  is  true  that  a  detailed  knowledge  of 
the  bones,  muscles,  and  organs  is  not  indispensable  for  the 
ordinary  physical  training  teacher  in  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion where  the  subject  matter  is  planned  for  him.  To 
those  who  aspire  to  advance,  more  extended  knowledge  is 
necessary.  An  understanding  of  medicine  is  invaluable; 
for  leadership,  it  is  almost  if  not  quite  essential. 

A   knowledge  of  psychology   is   likewise  necessary.     It 


THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER  9 

provides  a  basis  for  much  of  the  method  of  teaching  and 
gives  an  insight  into  the  thoughts,  ways,  and  feelings  of 
the  pupils  with  whom  the  teacher  has  to  deal.  It  is  of 
little  use  if  not  applied  to  the  affairs  of  everyday  practice. 
The  broader  the  interests  and  education  of  the  teacher, 
the  more  powerful  will  he  be,  for  there  is  nothing  in 
human  knowledge  or  experience  that  is  not  related  to  the 
teaching  of  children  and  to  the  purposes  of  physical  train- 
ing. A  college  education,  if  well  assimilated,  is  of  incal- 
culable value.  The  teacher  will  profit  greatly  if  he  knows 
the  nature  of  the  subjects,  other  than  physical  training, 
that  are  taught  to  the  pupils  he  instructs.  He  then  ap- 
preciates the  fact  that  physical  training  is  not  the  only 
subject  taught  in  the  school  in  which  he  works. 

b.  He  must  have  the  ability  to  demonstrate  whatever 
is  to  be  taught.    He  should  be  able  to  do  the  required  ex- 
ercise with  accuracy  and  ease,  and  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  inspire  his  pupils.     He  should  be  able  to  do  advanced 
gymnastics,  athletics,  games,  dances,  apparatus  work,  all 
with    brilliancy    and   elan.      Nothing   adds    more    to    the 
power  of  the  teacher  than  this  personal  ability,  the  lack 
of  which  is  quickly  discovered  by  his  pupils. 

c.  He  must  be  able  to  teach.     Some  are  born  with  an 
instinctive  ability  to  teach,  and  some  must  acquire  this 
power,  but  all  will  profit  by  adopting  teaching  processes 


10  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

that  have  been  carefully  formulated  and  found  to  be  the 
best.  By  the  use  of  such  methods,  the  natural  teacher 
may  double  his  efficiency  and  those  not  favored  by  nature 
may  make  the  most  of  their  abilities. 

d.  He   must   know    his    school,    his   neighborhood,  his 
town,  state,  and  country.    He  must  be  companionable  as 
a  fellow  instructor;    in  sympathy  with  the  school  life;    a 
good  neighbor;  and  a  well-informed,  right-thinking  citizen. 

e .  He  should  know  how  budgets  are  prepared  and  how 
bonds  may  be  issued  to  provide  for  the  cost  of  new  gym- 
nasiums   and    playgrounds.      He    should    also    know    the 
various  processes  by  which  he   may   obtain  supplies  for 
his  work. 

/.  Especially  he  should  know  the  local  civic  forces 
which  affect  his  work  and  by  means  of  which  it  can  be 
advanced -- the  school  board,  the  city  commission,  the 
board  of  aldermen,  the  mayor,  and  the  various  bureaus  of 
the  city  government.  He  should  know  the  various  clubs 
and  other  organizations  to  which  he  may  appeal  for  sup- 
port in  his  projects.  These  usually  include  the  Rotary 
and  Kiwanis  Clubs,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  or  Board 
of  Trade,  the  merchants'  or  manufacturers'  association, 
the  city  or  civic  clubs,  and  the  various  literary  societies. 

g.  He  should  be  acquainted  with  the  various  national 
forces  which  can  supply  him  with  literature  and  advice,  or 


THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER  11 

which  he  can  summon  to  his  aid;  such  as,  the  American 
Physical  Education  Association  and  its  various  branches, 
the  Children's  Bureau,  the  Public  Health  Service  of  the 
United  States,  the  Playground  and  Recreation  Associa- 
tion of  America  and  its  Community  Service,  the  National 
Education  Association,  the  School  Hygiene  Association, 
the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  the  National  Child  Wel- 
fare Association,  and  many  others  of  importance. 

4.  The  Teacher's  English.  -  -  It  is  most  important  that 
the  teacher  use  correct  and  pleasing  English  at  all  times. 
Unconscious  errors  in  grammar  are  common.  If  the 
friendly  criticism  of  a  fellow  worker  can  be  obtained,  or  if 
attention  is  given  to  this  difficulty  by  instructors  of 
teachers  in  training,  these  handicaps  may  be  recognized 
and  remedied. 

The  teacher  should  know  just  what  he  is  going  to  say 
before  he  begins  to  speak.  He  should  make  all  state- 
ments concise  and  should  use  short  Anglo-Saxon  words  in 
preference  to  long,  high-sounding  derivatives.  "Concise" 
and  "terse"  are  excellent  watchwords,  ever  to  be  kept  in 
mind  until  speech  becomes  habitually  compact  and  ex- 
plicit. 

Pronunciation  and  accent  will  need  correction,  if  faulty; 
and  all  speech  defects,  such  as  lisping,  ought  to  be  elimi- 
nated. Every  word  spoken  in  or  out  of  the  gymnasium 


12  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

should  be  enunciated  clearly,  and  each  consonant  given 
proper  value. 

Each  utterance  should  be  crisp;  and  this  word  crisp 
ma3T  well  be  practiced  frequently  to  give  freedom  and  mo- 
bility to  the  lips.  It  also  helps  one  to  think  crisply. 

II.       PHYSICAL    EQUIPMENT 

1.  Physical  and  Medical  Examination.  -  -  A  high  pur- 
pose without    a    sound  physical  equipment  to  sustain  it 
has  often  led  to  disaster.    One  who  plans  to  enter  a  teach- 
er's course  in  physical  training  should  undergo  a  thorough 
and  complete  physical  and  medical  examination  by  a  com- 
petent physician.    It  is  imperative  that  any  defect  of  eyes, 
ears,  nose,  teeth,  throat,  heart,  lungs,  kidneys,  generative 
organs,  feet,  bone,  or  muscle  be  known  and  corrected.    No 
one   should   be   admitted   to   a   physical   training    normal 
school  without  a  detailed  and  complete  medical  certificate, 
and  a  corresponding  certificate  from  a  dentist.  If  a  seri- 
ous irremediable  defect  is  present,  another  field  should  be 
sought ;  if  the  defect  can  be  corrected  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  prospective  teacher  should  not  remove  the  handi- 
cap. 

2.  Maintenance  of  Health. -- Dealing  with  the  health 
of  others,  the  teacher  is  prone  to  neglect  his  own.     "Shoe- 
maker's  children   go   without   shoes."      Nothing   is   more 


THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER       13 

necessary  for  the  teacher  than  persistently  to  follow  his 
own  advice  and  adopt  health  as  a  personal  fad.  He 
should  be  an  ever-present  example  for  his  pupils.  A  daily 
hygienic  routine  may  well  be  established  in  accordance 
with  the  standard  practice  in  instruction  in  hygiene.  The 
following  offers  a  good  start  for  the  day. 

a.  Arise  at  a  certain  fixed  time,  with  absolutely  no  ex- 
ceptions. This  is  excellent  moral  training  and  gives  ample 
time  to  prepare  properly  for  the  day's  work. 

6.    Exercise.    Neck  and  abdominal  muscles. 

Twenty  deep  trunk  bendings  right  and  left,  forward  and  back. 
Twenty  deep  neck  flexions  and  extensions. 
Twenty  trunk  twistings  right  and  left,  swinging  arms. 
Forty  alternate  knee  raisings,  with  clenched  fist  massaging  the  ab- 
domen. 

One  minute  good  posture  elevation  exercises  and  breathing. 
Twenty  deep  knee  bendings. 

c.  Bathe.     Warm  water  should  be  used,   with   a  cold 
splash  over  the  neck  or  a  full  cool  shower.     Brush  teeth 
and  massage  gums  with  toothbrush  for  two  minutes. 

d.  Dress  with  care  and  make  a  thorough  inspection  in 
answer  to  the  mental  query,  "Am  I  a  good  example  for 
my  pupils  to  follow?" 

3.  Walking  as  an  Aid  to  Health.  -  -  If  the  teacher 
would  keep  his  health  under  the  strain  of  teaching,  he 


14          THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

will  do  well  to  walk  three  miles  every  day,  with  high 
head,  deep  breathing,  springy  step,  and  with  some  friend 
to  accompany  him.  He  should  take  this  daily  walk 
whether  he  likes  it  or  not.  The  first  mile  is  the  hardest, 
and  the  last  is  of  most  value.  He  will  look  back  from 
after  life  with  a  deep  thankfulness  that  he  had  common 
sense  enough  to  persist. 

4.  General  Health  Measures.  -  -  Fresh  air,  deep 
breathing,  careful  eating,  proper  adjustment  of  work  and 
rest,  and  intelligent  recreation  should  all  be  the  peculiar 
care  of  the  teacher  as  applied  to  himself.  He  must  have 
courage  enough  to  practice  what  he  preaches. 

III.     PERSONALITY 

1.  Personality  Defined.  -  -  Personality  is  the  sum  of  the 
external  signs  of  the  personal  qualities.  Health,  culture, 
breeding,  power,  and  efficiency  reveal  themselves;  and  the 
teacher  is  quickly  and  instinctively  judged  by  impres- 
sions consciously  or  unconsciously  given  and  received. 
The  small  muscles  of  the  face  normally  register  every 
mental  state  and  gradually  become  telltales  of  mental 
habits.  Power,  weakness,  worry,  indecision,  honesty, 
slyness,  earnestness,  distress,  all  make  their  marks,  and 
these  are  easily  read.  Conscientious  effort  should  be 
made  to  throw  aside  all  disagreeable  mental  attitudes 


THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER  15 

and  to  replace  them  with  qualities  of  cheerfulness,  enthu- 
siasm, and  kindliness.  Those  who  engage  physical  train- 
ing teachers  know  the  importance  of  the  unconscious 
influence  of  the  teacher  on  the  class,  and  look  for  signs  of 
good  and  bad  qualities.  The  best  way  to  prepare  to  pass 
such  an  examination  is  to  seek  to  possess  the  desired  qualities. 

2.  The  Habit  of  Happiness. -- Happiness  has  a  great 
biological  significance.    The  habit  of  happiness  is  of  great 
value  to  the  teacher,  and  he  will  do  well  to  seek  it  delib- 
erately and  consistently.     "Smile  even  if  it  hurts,"  "iron- 
clad  optimism,"   and    "assume   a  virtue   if  you  have  it 
not,"   are  phrases  of  practical  usefulness.     One  may  at 
least  have  the  appearance  of  being  happy.    He  may  begin 
every  day  with  a  determination  that  it  will  be  a  good 
day;    he  may  say  to  himself,  "My  work  will  be  a  pleas- 
ure, for  I  am  strong  and  able.    I  will  enjoy  it  all,  for  it 
will  profit  both  the  world  and  me."     Such  effort  brings 
immeasurable  reward.     Happiness  works  in  many  ways. 
It  is  contagious,  and  makes  others  happier.     Everyone 
approves  of  happy  people.     The  pupils  like  the  teacher; 
they  will  do  things  to  please  him,  and  thus  his  efficiency 
is  directly  increased.     And,  finally,  the  teacher's  efforts 
react  upon  himself  and  do  him  good. 

3.  Tact  and  Diplomacy.  -  -  Tact  is  more  valuable  than 
genius,  for  those  who  possess  it  make  the  most  of  their 


16  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

ability.  In  essence  it  is  merely  habitual  and  systematic 
consideration  for  others.  Some  people  are  naturally  sym- 
pathetic and  kind,  but  others  must  cultivate  those  qual- 
ities. It  is  better  to  be  gracious  than  to  be  smart,  and  a 
teacher  should  never  be  "clever"  at  the  expense  of  his 
pupils.  A  nagging  teacher  is  neither  inspiring  nor  effec- 
tive. Training  for  diplomacy,  for  the  ability  to  get  along 
with  coworkers  and  pupils,  is  just  as  important  as  train- 
ing for  any  other  professional  quality.  The  teacher  must 
usually  begin  his  work  in  a  minor  position,  and  he  will 
find  it  good  training  as  well  as  immediately  useful  to  be 
on  good  terms  with  his  fellow  teachers,  with  the  princi- 
pal, and  also  with  the  janitor.  This  is  easier  if  he  realizes 
that  other  people  are  just  as  human  as  he,  and  if  he 
honestly  tries  to  understand  and  to  cooperate  with  those 
with  whom  he  must  work. 

4.  Popularity  an  Asset.  -  -  A  popular  teacher  can  do 
more  for  his  pupils  than  can  one  who  is  not  popular.  It 
is  worth  while  for  everyone  to  examine  himself  in  this 
respect,  and  if  he  finds  himself  wanting,  to  court  the  frank 
advice  of  his  associates.  This  is  especially  valuable  prac- 
tice if  one  desires  to  eliminate  mannerisms,  which  can  sel- 
dom be  discovered  otherwise  and  which  often  militate 
against  success.  Much  depends  upon  the  way  in  which 
the  teacher  impresses  his  pupils. 


THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER       17 

Attractiveness  is  not  enough;  far  more  effective  are  a 
spirit  of  helpfulness,  fairness,  and  long  patience,  and  an 
honest  personal  interest  in  the  pupils  and  their  work. 

5.  The  Teacher's  Manner.  -  -  The  teacher  needs  poise. 
His  manner  should  show  confidence  and  repose,  both  of 
which   are   attainable   attributes.     Ability   and   thorough 
preparation  will  lead  to  confidence.     Undue  modesty  is  a 
fault;     the  teacher  should  not  hold  himself  cheaply  but 
should  honor  his  own  estimate  of  his  work  and  worth. 
On  the  other  hand,  overconfidence  and  bluffing  are  signs 
of  ignorance  and  laziness,  and  invariably  cause  a  preju- 
dice against  the  person  who  exhibits  them.    Repose  is  the 
sign  of  latent  power.     Ease  of  manner  is  an  indication  of 
repose  and  is  worthy  of  sincere  cultivation.      Frequently 
a  lack  of  ease  is  due  to  shyness  and  inexperience  and 
manifests  itself  in  self-consciousness  and  embarrassment. 
If  the  teacher  can  divest  his  mind  and  muscles  of  all  un- 
necessary tension  and  can  center  his  interest  and  his  thoughts 
not  upon  himself  but  upon  the  class  and  the  lesson,  his 
self-consciousness  and  awkwardness  will  vanish  and  he  will 
have  made  a  long  stride  toward  the  achievement  of  repose. 

6.  Alertness.  --  Alertness  is  readiness  for  action.     It  is 
a  mental  rather  than  a  physical  state.     It  is  one  of  the 
important  physical   training  results,   and   one  which   the 
teacher  should  constantly  exhibit.    When  with  the  class,  he 


18          THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

should  see  everything,  and  be  brisk  and  purposeful  in 
action.  Overalertness  is  nervous  tension  without  ease,  and 
is  a  sign  of  lack  of  power  or  of  inadequate  preparation. 

7.  Inhibition.  -    The   ability   to   withhold  from   action 
until  the  proper  time  is  another  important  physical  train- 
ing result.     The  teacher  should  school  himself  to  refrain 
from  premature  word  and  act.     In  conference  he  should 
not  answer  a  question  before  it  is  fully  stated.     In  teach- 
ing and  in  disciplining  a  class  or  pupil,  he  should  con- 
sider the  end  of  the  matter  before  he  begins.     Inhibition 
is  one  of  the  high  mental  qualities;    it  is  not  found  in  the 
brute.      Without    it,    and    its    correlative,    patience,    the 
teacher  will  be  in  continual  difficulties  of  his  own  making. 

8.  The  Teacher's  Posture.  —  Good  posture  is  a  sign  of 
vigor  and  an  aid  to  health.     Buoyancy  of  carriage,  with- 
out strain  and  without  conscious  posing,  is  an  essential  of 
attractive   personality.      Grace   of   bearing   tends   toward 
energy  and  accuracy.     The  teacher  wrho  does  not  exhibit 
it  continually  before  the  class  defeats  his  own  purpose, 
and  no  person  not  in  habitually  good  posture  should  be 
engaged  to  teach  physical  training.     It  is  important  that 
the  normal  student  study  carefully  and  apply  to  himself 
personally  the  instruction  he  gives  in  good  posture.     All 
posture  defects  should  be  discovered  and  corrected  before 
he  enters  the  teaching  profession. 


THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  TEACHER       19 

9.  The  Use  of  the  Voice.  —  A  course  in  voice  training 
is  an  advisable  precaution,  for  the  voice  is  continually 
used,  and  strain  often  results.     There  are  two  essentials, 
power  and  placing.     Power  may  be  obtained  by  always 
having  good  posture,  with  a  high  chest,  and  always  tak- 
ing a  full  breath  before  speaking.     Correct  tone  placing 
may  be  achieved  only  by  practice.    The  voice  is  correctly 
used  if  there  is  a  feeling  that  the  tone  is  "located  in  front 
of  the  brow,"  and  that  it  travels  far  and  lightly  without 
forcing. 

A  feeling  that  the  tone  comes  from  the  throat  is  an  in- 
dication of  error.  Practice  may  begin  by  the  use  of 
"m-m-m"  on  the  pitch  of  middle  G,  softly,  with  the  lips 
lightly  closed.  It  may  continue  by  the  opening  of  the  lips 
and  the  using  of  gymnastic  commands,  with  varying  of 
the  pitch  and  increasing  of  the  power  of  the  tone. 

10.  Importance  of  Cleanliness.  -    The  sense  of  personal 
cleanliness  that  comes  from  scrupulous  daily  care  of  the 
body  is  almost  a  moral  quality.     The  daily  bath,  with 
stimulation  of  the  circulation  of  the  skin  by  cold  water 
and    rough    rubbing,    produces    a   feeling   of   health   and 
power.    This  is  of  value  in  itself  as  a  foundation  for  hap- 
piness, and  it  is  in  addition  a  sign  of  real  excellence  of  con- 
dition.   Women    teachers   should     have    the   hair    simply 
arranged  and  properly  confined.     It  is  the  teacher's  duty 


20  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

not  only  to  be  clean,  but  to  look  clean,  to  give  a  positive 
impression  of  being  "spick-and-span." 

11.  Clothing.  —  Clothing  is  an  extension  of  personality. 
The  face  and  hands  alone  are  seen;    the  balance  of  the 
personal  presentation  is  clothes.    They  belong  to  us;   they 
enter  into  our  appearance  and  express  our  characteristics. 
The   teacher's   clothing   should   be  clean,   unrumpled,   in 
strict  order,  and  properly  secured.     Clothes  ought  always 
to  be  durable,  appropriate  to  the  occasion,  comfortable, 
and  becoming  in  color  and  style. 

Costly  thy  habit  as  thy  purse  can  buy, 
But  not  expressed  in  fancy. 

The  teacher  should  take  pride  in  his  appearance.  In  ad- 
dition to  his  morning  inspection,  he  should  look  himself 
over  carefully  before  going  upon  the  gymnasium  floor. 
It  is  not  a  good  thing  for  pupils  to  see  defects  in  the 
teacher's  appearance. 

12.  The  Force  of  Example.  -  -  We  remember  our  teach- 
ers   when   we   have   forgotten    their   instruction.      "Like 
teacher  like  class"  is  an  old  and  true  saying.     The  great 
physical  training  results  are  Health,  Happiness,  and  Effi- 
ciency.    To  teach  them  the  teacher  should  possess  them 
all  and  exemplify  them  always,  for  the  force  of  example 
is  stronger  than  that  of  teaching. 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  LESSON  PLAN 

1.  Historical.  --  During  the  course  of  my  teaching  at 
the  High  School  of  Commerce  in  New  York  City  in  1902, 
I  became  dissatisfied  with  the  existing  systems  and  meth- 
ods in  physical  training  and  discouraged  writh  what 
seemed  to  me  much  indefiniteness  and  inutility. 

I  set  out  to  determine  first  the  definite  results  I  really 
wished  most  to  obtain  by  my  instruction,  to  classify 
these,  and  to  determine  their  worth;  next,  to  ascertain 
by  what  exercise  and  methods  of  instruction  these  ends 
could  best  be  met.  I  recommend  to  every  teacher  that 
he  engage  in  a  similar  search  for  himself. 

Pursuing  this  course  I  devised  the  plan  given  in  this 
chapter  and  put  it  into  daily  operation,  testing  it  by  prac- 
tice and  by  applying  it  to  varied  conditions. 

I  presented  it  in  the  presidential  address  before  the 
Physical  Education  Society  of  New  York  and  Vicinity  in 
1905,  and  later  at  Boston  I  again  presented  it,  more  de- 
veloped in  form,  in  a  presidential  address  before  the  Pub- 
lic School  Physical  Education  Society.  In  1913,  I  pre- 
sented it  to  the  physical  training  teachers  of  the  New 


22 


THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


York  City  High  Schools,  and  it  was  adopted  for  general 
use.    Later  the  elementary  schools  also  adopted  it. 

This  system  or  method  or  plan,  as  it  has  been  variously 
called,  has  for  its  chief  merit  concise,  clear  definiteness  - 
a  quality  much  to  be  desired  when  physical  training  is  so 
rapidly  spreading  and  must  need  frequently  be  taught  by 
those  who  lack  complete  training  in  the  subject. 

It  provides  for  the  novice  an  outline  for  the  intelligent 
direction  of  his  efforts  and  for  the  expert  a  foundation 
upon  which  he  may  erect  his  own  superstructure. 

So  far  as  I  can  see,  the  only  bad  effect  that  can  come 
from  its  use  will  be  that  its  very  simplicity  may  rob  the 
teacher  of  a  stimulus  to  do  his  own  thinking. 

2.   Typical  Lesson  Plan.  - 


Introductory 


Corrective         Good  posture 


Floor  formation,     Military 
mental   and 
physical  prep- 
aration for  the 
lesson 

1.  Static 

2.  Rhythmic 

3.  Slow  move- 

ments 


Method 

Response  com- 
mands 


Response  com- 
mands 

Elevation  cues 

Sustained  con- 
traction 

Rhythmic  com- 
mands 


THE   LESSON  PLAN 


Educational 


Hygienic 


Recreative 


Assembly 


Purpose  Content 

Neuromuscular     Gymnastics  em- 
and  psychomo-        phasizing  ac- 
tor education,         curacy 
inhibition,  pre- 
cision, alert- 
ness 

Organic  stimula-    Rhythmic  exer- 
tion, develop-        cises  of  trunk, 
leg,  and  back, 
rapid     and 
heavy 

Natural  exercises; 
i.e.,    athletics, 


ment  of  ab- 
dominal mus- 
cles. 

Happiness 

Knowledge  of  ex- 
ercises 

Natural,  educa- 
tional, and  hy- 
gienic results 

Control    and     Military 
quiet 


games,  dances 


Method 

Response  com- 
mands 


Rhythmic  serial 
commands 


Rhythmic,  music 
or  no  com- 
mands 


Response  com- 
mands 


3.  The  Principles  of  the  Lesson  Plan.  —  Physical  train- 
ing has  two  major  aims  —  health  and  motor  education. 
In  this  system  all  physical  training  procedure  has  been 
classified  according  to  the  purpose  and  function  of  the 
movements,  and  each  form  appears  in  proper  place  and 
sequence  in  a  typical  lesson. 

The   formation   of   the   lesson  plan   is   peculiar  to   this 


24  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

system,  and  is  based  upon  the  following  principles: 
(a)  consideration  of  the  function  and  result  of  exercise, 
rather  than  its  form;  (b)  concentration  upon  the  major 
physical  training  results;  (c)  the  selection  of  only  the 


I .         Cor. 


Ed. 


nyg. 


Rec. 


A. 


AMPLITUDE  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  WORK  ix  A  TYPICAL  LESSON 

best  exercises  for  accomplishing  these  results;    and  (d)  the 
grouping  together  of  exercises  of  similar  purpose. 

4.  The  Functional  Basis.  -  -  It  is  our  duty  to  develop 
men,  women,  and  children  rather  than  to  teach  exercises. 
It  is  better  to  center  our  attention  upon  their  needs  and 
the  methods  of  meeting  them  than  to  progress  systemat- 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


ically  from  simplicity  to  complexity  in  the  form  of  exer- 
cise. This  system  is  therefore  based  upon  function  and 
the  lesson  plan  exhibits  the  purposes  rather  than  the  mere 
structural  forms  of  exercises. 


Cor. 


Ed. 


Rcc. 


INTENSITY  OF  MENTAL  WORK  IN*  A  TYPICAL  LKSSOX 

5.  The  Different  Results  of  Exercises.  -  -  Exercises  dif- 
fer from  one  another  in  the  results  they  produce.  Static 
exercises  (those  in  which  the  position  is  held),  which  are 
excellent  for  the  improvement  of  poor  posture,  are  largely 
useless  for  any  hygienic  purpose  which  demands  rhythmic 
contraction  of  large  muscles.  Movements  of  a  precise 


26  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

nature,  which  are  excellent  for  training  in  inhibition  and 
accuracy  of  position,  may  be  similarly  ineffective  for 
either  hygienic  or  corrective  purposes,  and  of  no  value 
whatever  as  recreation.  Therefore  care  should  be  taken 
to  select  exercises  the  results  of  which  will  answer  the  spe- 
cifically desired  purpose. 

6.  Concentration  in  Choice  of  Exercises. -- If  but  one 
result  is  expected  from  an  exercise,  the  choice  may  be 
made   without  compromise.     Hitherto   an   endeavor  has 
been  made  to  make  one  exercise  serve  all  these  formal 
purposes  —  corrective,    educational,    and   hygienic  —  and 
consequently  no  one  purpose  was  best  served.     With  but 
one  object  in  view,  only  the  best  for  each  purpose  need 
be  selected;  thus  efficiency  is  combined  with  economy. 

7.  Concentration  in   Method.  -  -  Different   methods   of 
teaching  and  command  are  appropriate  to  different  exer- 
cises and  different  purposes.    Hygienic  results  cannot  be 
obtained  in  fullest  measure  by  the  use  of  response  com- 
mands, nor  can  inhibition  or  static  position  be  obtained 
from  the  use  of  rhythmic  commands. 

Thus  the  selection  of  exercises  is  made  more  exact,  the 
movements  become  more  appropriate  to  their  purpose, 
and  the  methods  of  teaching  more  definite  and  effective 
by  applying  the  principle  of  concentration.  We  may  cen- 
ter our  attention  on  one  thing  at  a  time,  to  obtain  one  re- 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  27 

suit,  and  pass  with  the  impetus  of  success  to  the  work 
next  at  hand. 

8.  Concentration  hi  Purpose.  --  Under  the  present  plan, 
teacher  and  pupils  seek  one  result  at  a  time.  They  fail  if 
required  to  seek  several.  Few  teachers,  much  less  pupils, 
can  keep  all  three  formal  purposes,  corrective,  educational, 
and  hygienic,  in  mind  while  teaching.  Most  teach- 
ers and  pupils  do  not  know  definitely  why  they  are  exer- 
cising. When  an  exercise  has  but  one  and  only  one 
purpose,  the  teacher  can  bend  every  effort  toward  one 
end,  obtain  the  result,  and  pass  to  the  next  task. 

Under  these  conditions  the  pupils  may  easily  under- 
stand the  reason  for  the  exercise,  and  interest  and  enthu- 
siasm may  be  aroused.  The  following  quotation  from  Sir 
James  Fitch  states  the  point:  "Let  the  scholars  see  what 
you  are  aiming  at  and  catch  something  of  your  interest 
and  enthusiasm.  He  who  expects  children  to  master  with 
any  earnestness  details  of  which  they  do  not  see  the  pur- 
pose, is  asking  them  to  make  bricks  without  straw,  and 
will  certainly  be  disappointed."  This  applies  with  even 
greater  force  to  adults. 

In  the  past,  physical  training  has  been  largely  esoteric. 
Its  meaning,  except  in  a  most  general  sense,  was  hidden 
as  if  it  were  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  ordinary 
mind.  It  is  our  purpose  on  the  contrary  to  give  to  every 


28  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

superintendent,  teacher,  and  pupil  a  clear  objective,  and 
a  simple,  intelligible,  practical  process  which  will  honestly 
and  efficiently  produce  results  so  that  each  one  may  dem- 
onstrate for  himself  that  he  is  making  progress  in  things 
that  are  worth  while  to  child,  pedagogue,  and  biological 
engineer  alike. 

All  physical  training  procedures  should  be  subjected  to 
this  rigid  test.  It  is  not  too  severe  when  we  are  dealing 
with  human  lives. 

9.  The  Sequence  of  the  Lesson  Plan.  -  -  The  sequence 
of  the  groups  of  exercises  in  the  lesson  plan  is  based  upon 
administrative,  psychological,  and  physiological  consider- 
ations. Introductory  exercises  come  first  to  arrange  the 
class,  to  obtain  attention,  and  to  prepare  the  organic  and 
muscular  systems  for  hard  work. 

Corrective  exercises  follow  to  emphasize  good  posture 
early  in  the  lesson,  to  favor  good  blood  distribution  by 
increased  thoracic  aspiration,  and  to  continue  the  mental 
and  physical  preparation  for  harder  work.  Educational 
exercises  are  taken  next  to  train  in  movements  used  later 
and  to  increase  gradually  the  vasopulmonary  and  mus- 
cular work.  Hygienic  exercises  follow  and  furnish  the 
maximum  organic  work-  "real  exercise"  as  the  term  is 
generally  understood.  Recreative  exercises  end  the  lesson, 
completely  clearing  away  the  formal  attention  strain  and 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


putting  into  natural  practice  the  organic  and  muscular 
complex.  For  administrative  purposes,  the  lesson  is 
closed  by  a  call  to  strict  attention. 

This  is  the  classic  form  of  the  lesson  and  while  the  se- 
quence should  be  preserved  under  ordinary  conditions  it 


Athletic  or  Game  Period 


"Breaking  In"  a  Class 


1st  Year  El.  School 


Standard 


Time  i 

(Minutes  of  Lesson) 


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A. 

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tional 

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tlve 

A. 

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lee. 

A. 

5          10         15         20         25         30         35         40 

TYPICAL  VARIATIONS  IN  THE  LESSON  PLAN 

may  and  should  be  varied  indefinitely.  Athletic  periods, 
game  and  play  periods,  and  dancing  lessons  should  follow 
the  principles  underlying  it,  with  the  necessary  adaptation 
to  immediate  purpose. 

The  principle  of  seeking  one  result  at  a  time  should 
never  be  violated. 


CHAPTER  IV 

COMMANDS 

1.  The  Gymnastic   Command.  -    The  gymnastic  com- 
mand is  the  means  of  giving  information  to  the  class.     It 
tells  what  is  to  be  done  and  how  it  should  be  done.     It 
includes  a  description  of  an  exercise  and  an  order  to  per- 
form the  movement  described. 

2.  Purpose  of   Commands. -- It  must  be  remembered 
that  commands  are  used  merely  for  the  purpose  of  getting 
the  exercise  done;     and  it  is  exceptionally  important  for 
the  teacher  to  realize  that  they  are  only  a  means  of  get- 
ting the  results  of  an  exercise  and  that  it  is  upon  these  re- 
sults that  the  whole  attention   of  the  class  and  teacher 
should  be  centered.     Careful  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  formation  of  the  command,  and  the  functions  of  its 
various  parts  should  be  understood. 

3.  Forms  of  Commands.  -  -  There  are  two  major  forms 
of  commands:    the  response  command  and  the  rhythmic 
command. 

I.     THE    RESPONSE    COMMAND 

1.   Purpose  of  the  Response  Command.  -  -  The  response 
command  is  used  where  a  single  movement  is  to  result. 

30 


COMMANDS  31 

This  movement  terminates  in  a  position  which  is  held 
until  the  next  command  is  given;  thus,  position  rather 
than  movement  is  emphasized.  They  are  used  in  the  in- 
troductory, corrective,  and  educational  sections  of  the  les- 
son and  elsewhere  when  alertness,  accuracy,  and  inhibi- 
tion are  desired.  Examples  of  the  response  command  are: 

1 .  Hands  on  hips  —  PLACE ! 

2.  Stretching  arms  forward  —  ONE ! 

2.  Parts  of  the  Response  Command.  -    The  response 
command  has  three  elements:    the  preparatory  part,  the 
pause,  and  the  executive  part. 

3.  Preparatory  Part.  -  -  The  purpose  of  the  preparatory 
part  is  to  give  complete  information  quickly,  clearly,  and 
concisely,  as  to  what  is  required  of  the  pupil.     As  a  rule  it 
contains  three  parts  in  the  following  order:    a  statement 
of  (1)  the  movement  to  be  done,  (2)  the  part  to  be  moved, 
and  (3)  the  direction  of  the  movement  or  the  place  where 
it  terminates.     For  example:    Placing — right  foot — for- 
ward. 

The  following  rules  apply  to  its  formation: 
a.  The  preparatory  part  should  contain  complete  informa- 
tion. It  is  important  that  nothing  should  be  left  out,  and 
that  nothing  should  be  left  to  chance.  A  typical  violation 
of  this  rule  is  the  command,  Arms  forward  —  STRETCH! 
which  should  be  Stretching  arms  forward  —  ONE ! 


32          THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

A  clear  and  complete  picture  must  be  formed  in  the 
mind  of  the  pupil.  If  the  exercise  is  new,  the  preparatory 
part  of  the  command  may  be  expanded  into  a  description, 
and,  if  necessary,  supported  by  a  demonstration  by  the 
teacher.  In  this  case,  the  preparatory  command  may  be 
given  again  in  concise  form  when  the  description  is  ended. 
The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  make  sure  that  the 
pupils  understand  exactly  what  is  required  of  them,  as 
many  teachers  fail  to  get  accurate  and  vigorous  results 
through  lack  of  such  care. 

When  the  pupils  know  what  is  to  be  done,  the  com- 
mand alone  is  sufficient;  when  the  exercise  is  well  known 
its  title  need  be  given  only  at  the  beginning,  and  each 
successive  movement  is  taken  in  response  to  an  executive 
command  in  numeral  form,  thus:  Hands  to  toes,  trunk 
erect,  hands  on  shoulders,  arms  upward  —  ONE!  TWO! 
THREE!  FOUR!  ONE!  — etc. 

b.  Xothing  should  be  left  to  the  executive  part  of  the  com- 
mand except  the  signal  to  more.  This  rule  is  the  correlative 
of  Rule  a.  The  executive  part  may,  it  is  true,  repeat  an 
essential  part  of  the  preparatory  command,  as  in  Stretch- 
ing arms  forward  —  STRETCH!  or  it  may  be  a  numeral, 
as  in  Stretching  arms  forward  — -  ONE! 

The  following  commands  illustrate  this  rule:  Facing 
right  --  FACE!  instead  of  Right  --  FACE!  when  the  com- 


COMMANDS  33 

mand  Right  does  not  fully  describe  what  is  to  be  done. 
It  might  be  Right  --  DRESS!  In  ordinary  practice,  how- 
ever, it  is  not  necessary  to  use  the  word  Facing  or  Dress- 
ing in  a  preparatory  command,  if  the  teacher  is  sure  the 
pupils  know  exactly  what  to  do. 

The  teacher  should  leave  out  of  the  preparatory  com- 
mand everything  that  is  not  necessary  but  nothing  that 
is  essential. 

c.  There  is  to  be  nothing  in  the  preparatory  part  which 
can  possibly  be  construed  as  a  signal  to  move.  For  example, 
A?'ms  forward  stretch  —  ONE !  is  wrong,  while  Stretching 
arms  forward  —  ONE !  is  correct,  for  stretch  may  be  con- 
strued as  a  signal  to  move.  In  following  this  rule  the 
teacher  should  not  use  the  imperative  form  of  the  verb. 
The  verbal  noun  (the  gerund  form  ending  in  -ing)  is 
better  and  should  be  placed  foremost.  Thus  Arms 
forward  stretching  should  give  place  to  Stretching  arms 
forward. 

4.    The  Pause. -- The  pause  has  three  functions: 

a.  To  give  time  for  the  mind  to  sense  the  preparatory 
part,  to  assimilate  it,  and  to  make  a  mental  picture  of 
the  movement  desired. 

A  sufficiently  long  pause  thus  supports  the  function  of 
the  preparatory  part,  permitting  the  formation  of  a  com- 
plete mental  image  of  the  movement.  Unless  enough 


34  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

time  is  given  for  this,  some  pupils  will  be  taken  unawares 
and  will  render  a  faulty,  hesitating,  inaccurate  result. 

b.  To  give  time  to  adjust  the  nervous  and  muscular 
mechanisms    to    the    expected    movement.      During    the 
pause,   the  nervous  system  and  the  muscles  must  have 
time  to  adjust  themselves  to  begin  the  expected  move- 
ment when  the  executive  command  is  given. 

c.  To  train  in  inhibition.     Inhibition  is  the  ability  to 
withhold  from  action  until  the  proper  time.     This  ability 
increases   from    infancy    to   maturity,    from    savagery    to 
higher  civilization,  and  from  the  lowest  animal  forms  to 
the    highest.     Its    development    is    one    of    the    greatest 
educational     functions     of    physical     training,     and    will 
be  more  fully  considered  in  the  chapter  on   Educational 
Work. 

5.  Length  of  Pause.  -  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
pause  in  the  response  command  has  great  importance.  A 
common  fault  of  teachers  of  Physical  Training  is  neglect 
to  make  this  pause  sufficiently  long.  This  very  fault  is  in 
itself  evidence  of  lack  of  inhibition,  and  is  caused  by  a  de- 
sire to  get  work  done  rapidly.  Nothing  will  more  cer- 
tainly prevent  accuracy  and  vigor  in  movement  than  a 
disregard  of  the  proper  length  of  the  pause,  or  in  other 
words,  "rushing  the  command."  To  obtain  the  habit  of 
making  the  pause  sufficient,  the  teacher  may  take  a 


COMMANDS  35 

breath  before  giving  the  executive  command.     This   will 
also  add  the  desired  force  and  power  to  the  latter. 

6.  Variation  of  Pause. --In  a  series  of  response  com- 
mands, the  pause  should  be  slightly  varied.  If  the  com- 
mands for  a  series  are  given  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupils 
know  exactly  when  the  successive  signals  to  move  will 
occur,  they  will  not  wait  for  the  signals  but  will  move 
when  they  expect  the  command  to  be  given.  This  re- 
lieves them  of  the  necessity  for  alertness  and  destroys 
training  in  inhibition.  It  results  in  pseudorhythmical 
work  over  which  the  teacher  has  lost  control.  If  this  con- 
dition is  threatened,  the  teacher  should  unexpectedly  stop 
and  "catch"  those  who  are  not  waiting  for  the  command. 
This  variation  may  be  exemplified  as  follows: 

ONE !  -    -  TWO !  —  THREE !  -  -  FOUR ! 

ONE !  —  TWO !  -    -  THREE !  -  -  FOUR ! 

ONE !  -  -  TWO !  -  -  TH REE !  -  FOUR ! 
There  is  an  important  exception  to  this  rule  in  the  fac- 
ing in  introductory  work.  Here  successive  commands  for 
simple  facing  are  given  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a 
rhythm.  This  method  is  useful  whenever  the  class  has  for 
any  reason  lost  its  coherence  and  needs  to  be  synchron- 
ized. 

7.   Varying  the  Sequence.  -  -  Instead  of  giving  the  com- 
mands in  their  usual  sequence  1  —  2  — •  3  --  4,  the  teacher, 


36  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

seeking  to  catch  the  pupils  unawares,  may  vary  the  se- 
quence as  follows:  1  —  3 — 2  --4  —  2  —  1  — 3  —  3  --4  - 
2--l--etc.  The  exercise  then  becomes  a  game;  inter- 
est and  alertness  increase,  but  at  the  sacrifice  of  continu- 
ity. For  this  reason  this  is  appropriate  only  for  occasional 
use;  never  as  a  routine  method. 

8.  The  Executive  Part.  -  -  The  executive  part  of  the 
command  is  the  signal  to  move.  Numbers  or  words  de- 
scribing the  movement  —  such  as  PLACE!  BEND! 
STRETCH!  ONE!  TWO!  THREE!  etc.  may  be 
used. 

When  the  movement  is  done  and  the  desired  position 
obtained,  the  teacher  should  correct  those  wrho  have 
not  taken  it  accurately  and  speed  up  those  who  are 
slow. 

The  executive  part  of  the  command  should  indicate  the 
manner  in  which  the  movement  is  to  be  done.  A  quick 
movement  is  usually  desired,  and  as  a  rule  the  command 
should  have  the  qualities  of  the  pistol  shot  that  starts  the 
sprinters  from  their  mark.  A  slow  controlled  movement 
may  be  obtained  by  slowly  drawing  out  the  executive 
command,  for  example: 

S  —  T  — R--E  —  T  —  C    -H! 

There  is  an  important  exception  to  the  rule  that  all 
necessary  information  should  be  given  in  the  preparatory 


COMMANDS  37 

part.  This  is  "Response  to  Unknown  Signals,"  and  oc- 
curs in  educational  work.  The  command  is  given,  Jump- 
ing to  the  —  RIGHT!  (or  left,  back,  front).  Here  it  is  de- 
sired to  place  the  pupil  in  some  such  situation  as  arises 
when  one  is  suddenly  threatened  by  an  automobile  or 
street  car,  and  to  train  him  for  immediate  adjustment  to 
an  unknown  signal.  For  no  other  purpose  is  this  method 
advisable. 

Tapping  with  a  wand  or  ruler  or  clapping  the  hands 
may  occasionally  be  used  instead  of  the  executive  com- 
mands, but  these  methods  are  not  recommended.  If  used, 
the  tap  takes  the  place  of  the  command.  Either  tapping 
or  the  command  may  be  used,  never  both  for  the  same 
movement. 

II.    RHYTHMIC    COMMAND 

1.  Purpose  of  the  Rhythmic  Command.  —  Serial  com- 
mands are  used  mainly  in  hygienic  exercises  because  they 
emphasize  movement  rather  than  pause,  concentric  and 
eccentric  contraction  rather  than  static  contraction,  and 
increase  in  the  number  of  contractions  possible  within  a 
given  time.  The  use  of  response  commands  requires  that 
most  of  the  time  be  spent  in  holding  positions;  rhythmic 
commands  permit  most  of  the  time  to  be  spent  in  move- 
ment. 


38  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

2.  Parts  of  the  Rhythmic  Command.  -  -  The  rhythmic 
command  consists  of  the  following  elements: 

1.  The  preparatory  part 

2.  The  pause 

3.  The  executive  part 

4.  Counting  or  keeping  time 

5.  Halting 

In  general  the  comments  descriptive  of  the  first  three 
elements  given  under  the  response  command  apply  to  the 
rhythmic  command,  with  the  important  exception  that 
the  preparatory  part  in  addition  to  giving  the  necessary 
information  may  also  set  the  rhythm  for  the  performance 
of  the  movement. 

3.  A    typical     rhythmic    command    is    the    following: 
Placing  hands  at  sides  of  shoulders,  stretching  arms  upward, 
shoulders,  position   (Pause)  Beady   (Pause)   BEGIN!  One! 
Two!  Three!  Four!  etc.     .     .     .     One!  Two!  Class  HALT! 

4.  Establishing  the  Rhythm.  —  As  in  the  response  com- 
mand, the  preparatory  part  may  be  expanded  into  a  de- 
scription and  a  demonstration.     This  description  may  in- 
clude a  statement  of  the  rhythm  in  which  the  movements 
are  to  be  made.     Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  es- 
tablish the  correct  rhythm,  for  without  that  precaution 
the  exercise  will  not  be  attacked  simultaneously  by  all  the 
pupils,   and  faulty  performance  will  result.     By  various 


COMMANDS  39 

methods  the  announcement  of  the  desired  rhythm  may 
be  made.  The  exercise  itself  may  be  demonstrated  or  in- 
dicated, the  hand  may  be  waved  from  side  to  side  in  the 
proper  rhythm,  or  a  wand  may  be  tapped  on  the  floor. 
Music  may  be  used. 

An  effective  way  to  establish  rhythm  is  to  give  eight 
counts  in  the  proper  tempo,  substituting  for  the  seventh 
count  the  word  Ready  and  for  the  eighth  count  the  word 
BEGIN!  Or,  if  preferred,  instead  of  using  the  word 
Ready,  the  count  may  merely  be  emphasized  and  the 
voice  raised,  by  way  of  warning.  After  the  class  is  thor- 
oughly in  hand  and  a  sense  of  rhythm  has  been  created 
by  previous  movements,  the  description  of  the  exercise 
may  be  followed  merely  by  the  words  Ready,  or  Class  - 
BEGIN!  or  merely,  BEGIN!  This  short  method  is  used 
when  the  teacher  is  confident  that  the  rhythm  is 
known. 

As  indicated,  the  word  Ready  or  its  equivalent  is  the 
end  of  the  preparatory  command  and  the  word  BEGIN! 
is  the  executive  command. 

Example :    Setting  the  rhythm  - 

Placing  hands  on  shoulders,  stretching  arms  upward, 
shoulders,  position. 

1--2  — 3--4--1--2  Ready,  BEGIN!  1--2  — 3- 
4  --  1. 


40  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

5.  Music.  -  -  If  music  is  employed  for  a  rhythmic  exer- 
cise or  for  a  dance,  the  following  form  is  used,  the  music 
corresponding  to  the  regular  command: 

Preparatory  Part  Pause  Execution 

Command:  Ready  Begin! 

Music:  Four  bars  One  measure  Chord 

6.  Counting.  -  -  The  exercise  having  been  started  at  the 
word  BEGIN,  the  first  count  is  given  exactly  at  the  time 
when  the  first  position  is  taken.     Other  succeeding  counts 
should  coincide  with  the  taking  of  these  positions  and  not 
with  the  start  of  the  movement  toward  them. 

VARIOUS  METHODS  or  COUNTING 

Twos  1-2,  1-2,  1-2,  1-2,  etc Best  for  two-count 

exercises 

Fours  1-2-3-4,  1-2-3-4,  etc Best  for  four-count 

exercises 

Eights  1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8,  1-2-3-4,  etc.      .     .  Seldom  used 

Return  1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8,  8-7-6-5,  etc.     .     .  Not  recommended 

Continuous  1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12,  etc.      .  Not  recommended 

The  most  common  method  is  counting  in  fours  and  for 
a  four-count  movement  it  is  usually  the  best. 

In  the  above  methods  each  count  coincides  with  a  single 
movement.  The  teacher  may  use  two  counts  to  each 
movement  as  follows: 

Movement       1234 
(  cunts         1—2  3  —  4  5  —  6  7  —  8 


COMMANDS  41 

This  method  gives  a  slower,  more  accurate  and  vigorous 
movement,  but  decreases  the  total  number  of  muscle  con- 
tractions per  minute. 

The  voice  should  be  full  of  animation,  varying  in  tone 
and  quality,  stimulating  and  carrying  the  class  through 
the  exercise  vigorously,  quietly,  or  enthusiastically  as  de- 
sired. It  should  stress  extension  counts  rather  than 
flexion  counts.  Most  frequently  this  emphatic  count 
comes  upon  the  third  in  series;  this  emphasis  is  rhythmi- 
cally and  technically  correct. 

In  many  movements,  such  as  running  and  marching, 
which  have  a  naturally  established  self-sustaining  rhvthm, 

</  o  c 

counts  are  not  usually  needed.  They  may,  however,  be 
used  to  reestablish  rhythmical  accuracy  and  to  stimulate 
the  class  to  better  performance. 

7.  Omitting  Counting.  -    The  teacher  may  stop  count- 
ing and   require  the  class  to  continue  without   it.     The 
pupils   should   continue   gaining  practice   in   keeping   the 
rhythm,  guided  by  the  sense  of  sight  and  sound.     This 
may  be  made  more  interesting  and  difficult  by  requiring 
the  pupils   to  close  their  eyes.     This  method  is  not  for 
common  use,  for  it  turns  the  attention  of  the  pupil  inward 
upon  himself  instead  of  outward  upon  the  vigor  and  com- 
pleteness of  the  movement. 

8.  Irregular    Rhythm.  --  Irregular   rhythms   are   some- 


42          THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

times  used  when  one  or  more  elements  in  a  four-count 
series  are  done  more  rapidly  than  the  others.  Example: 
1,  2  —  3-- 4,-- 1,  2  —  3-- 4-- 1,  2. 

9.  Accented  Rhythm.  —  As  a  rule  it  is  best  to  accent 
one  or  more  of  the  counts,  usually  the  second  of  a  four- 
count  series.     One  should  emphasize  the  count  on  which 
the  most  effort  is  placed;    this  is   usually  the  extension 
element. 

10.  Halting.  -  -  To    end    the    exercise,    the    command 
CLASS  --  HALT!  is  given  in  place  of  the  last  two  counts, 
as  follows:    1  ~  2  —  3  --  4  —  1  —  2  —  CLASS  —  HALT! 

The  exercise  comes  to  rest  on  the  word  "halt."  The  class 
may  be  forewarned  of  the  ending  of  the  exercise  by  rais- 
ing the  voice  on  1  -  -  2  as  follows : 

1—2  HALT! 

/  / 

1—2  — 3 --4  Class 

11.  Changing.  -  -  If  an  exercise  is  done  to  the  left  side 
and  it  is  desired  to  change  to  the  right,  the  change  may 
be  made  as  follows: 

1—2  —  3  —  4,      1—2  Change  RIGHT. 

or 
1—2  —  3  —  4,      1  —  2  Same  RIGHT. 

12.  Descriptive  Cues.  --  Instead  of  counts  or  numerals, 
descriptive   cues   may   be   substituted   in   serial   exercises. 


COMMANDS  43 

These  are  words  describing  the  positions  to  be  taken,  such 
as  "up,  down,  front,  back,"  and  so  forth;  or  words  used 
to  urge  greater  vigor  in  performance,  such  as  "now," 
"hit,"  "hard,"  and  the  like. 

13.  Other  Signals.  —  Flags  may  be  used  to  direct  exer- 
cises already  known,  given  in  drill  form  or  for  exhibition. 
This  method  was  first  used  in  a  demonstration  of  school 
gymnastics  given  by  10,000  boys  in  Central  Park,  New 
York  City,  in  1913.  It  was  the  only  form  of  command 
which  could  be  used  because  sound  could  not  travel  fast 
enough  over  the  vast  area  occupied  by  the  mass  of 
boys. 

Two  flags  are  used.  One  in  the  left  hand  is  used  to  in- 
dicate the  rhythm  of  the  movement  and  beats  time  begin- 
ning eight  counts  before  the  exercise  starts  and  continu- 
ing until  the  end.  The  flag  in  the  other  hand  starts  and 
stops  the  movement.  It  is  raised  on  the  first  of  the  four 
counts  immediately  preceding  the  beginning  of  the  exer- 
cise. It  begins  to  wave  in  time  when  the  exercise  begins 
and  rests  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  four  counts. 

Following  the  principle  that  one  flag  should  be  used  for 
rhythm  and  another  for  starting  and  stopping,  the  teacher 
may  devise  his  own  method. 

Flags  are  used  in  the  Army  and  Navy  for  signal  pur- 
poses and  it  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  of  physical 


44  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

training  to  become  acquainted  with  their  method.  The 
Army  also  uses  arm  signals  which  describe  the  nature  of 
the  movement  and  the  command  for  its  execution. 

14.  Practice  of  Commands.  -  The  study  and  practice 
of  correctly  formed  and  properly  given  commands  is  im- 
portant to  the  student  of  physical  training.  Apparently 
good  results  may  be  obtained  by  excellent  teachers  who 
violate  the  rules  given,  but  such  success  is  accomplished 
in  spite  of  faulty  methods,  not  because  of  them.  Practice 
may  be  gained  by  writing  out  ten  commands  illustrating 
the  use  of  each  rule  given,  and  giving  these  commands  as 
if  to  a  class.  Not  until  the  teacher  becomes  so  familiar 
with  the  correct  use  of  commands  that  he  needs  to  give 
their  formation  no  attention,  will  he  be  able  to  give  his 
whole  thought  to  getting  the  results  of  the  exercises. 

The  preliminary  practice  should  be  painstakingly  under- 
gone, but  should  be  finished  as  soon  as  possible,  so  that, 
facility  gained,  the  teacher  may  give  all  his  attention  to 
more  important  work. 


CHAPTER  V 

INTRODUCTORY  WORK 

1.  Definition   of  Introductory   Work.  -  -  The   introduc- 
tory section  of  the  lesson  includes  all  that  is  to  be  done 
in  preparation  for  the  special  physical  training  work  to 
follow,  in  which  the  major  purposes  of  physical  training, 
the  securing  of  good  posture  and  the  training  of  mind  and 
body,  will  be  undertaken.    It  is  merely  a  preface. 

2.  Purposes     of    Introductory     Work.  -  -  Introductory 
work  has  three  coordinate  purposes: 

a.  Administrative  purpose.     The  class  is  to  be  received 
in  the  gymnasium,  put  under  control,  and  distributed  on 
the  floor  ready  for  work,  with  attendance  taken  and  prep- 
aration of  costume,  and  the  like,  verified. 

b.  Psychological  purpose.     The  pupils   are   to   be   ren- 
dered attentive,  alert,  and  accurate;     and  a  group  con- 
sciousness is  to  be  established. 

c.  Physiological  purpose.     By  the  use  of  comparatively 
mild  exercises,  the  muscles  and  organs  are  to  be  stimu- 
lated and  prepared  for  the  heavier  work  to  follow. 

45 


46  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

I.     ADMINISTRATIVE    PHASE 

1.  Preparation  of  the  Gymnasium.  -  -  The  room  or  place 
in  which  the  exercises  are  to  be  given,  whether  it  be  gym- 
nasium, classroom,  playground,  or  athletic  field,  must  be 
prepared  for  the  lesson.    It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  see  to 
it  that  the  place  is  clean,  that  the  temperature  is,  if  pos- 
sible, not  over  sixty  degrees,  and  that  there  are  ample  ar- 
rangements for  a  constant  supply  of  fresh,  cool  air.     He 
should  see  that  the  heavy  apparatus  is  conveniently  at 
hand,  ready  for  use,  and  that  it  is  not  broken  nor  in  a 
dangerous  condition.     He  should  have  keys  for  the  lock- 
ing racks  or  cabinets  which  contain  hand  apparatus.     All 
play   apparatus,   basket  balls,  hockey  sticks,   bean   bags, 
etc.,  should  either  be  at  hand  in  the  gymnasium  or  be 
brought  in  by  the  class. 

2.  Preparation  of  the  Teacher.  -  -  The  teacher  should 
be  clad  in  his  gymnastic  costume.     He  should  have  a  roll 
book  containing  a  list  of  the  names  of  all  the  pupils,  and 
a  place  for  various  records.     He  will  need  a  pencil;    it  is 
an  excellent  idea  to  have  it  attached  to  the  roll  book. 

The  teacher  should  carry  into  the  gymnasium  a  state- 
ment of  the  lesson  written  out  in  more  or  less  detail,  de- 
pending upon  his  experience.  At  first  a  list  of  exercises 
written  on  a  .5  x  8  card  is  advisable,  but  later  the  memo- 
randum mav  be  smaller  if  desired. 


INTRODUCTORY  WORK  47 

It  will  be  found  useful  to  have  a  series  of  exercises  of 
the  educational,  hygienic,  or  recreative  type,  including  ap- 
paratus work,  posted  on  the  bulletin  board. 

3.  Establishing  Control  of  the  Class.  —  After  the  class 
is  received  in  the  gymnasium,  it  is  necessary  to  establish 
perfect  control.  This  is  the  first  and  one  of  the  most 
important  tasks  of  the  teacher,  for  no  effective  teaching 
can  be  done  without  it.  It  is  especially  necessary  in  the 
session  in  which  the  class  meets  the  teacher  for  the  first 
time. 

At  this  first  session  as  the  class  is  standing  about  wait- 
ing for  instruction,  the  command  Class  —  ATTENTION ! 
may  be  given.  When  the  pupils  become  sufficiently  silent 
and  attentive,  the  teacher  should  explain  that  this  com- 
mand means  instant  immobility  and  silence  -  "Stop,  look, 
and  listen!"  When  he  has  made  this  clear,  he  should  dis- 
perse the  class  for  the  purpose  of  practicing  the  exercise 
again,  and  if  needs  be,  may  do  this  a  third  or  fourth  time. 
Since  this  is  the  first  work  given  to  the  class,  a  perfect 
result  should  be  insisted  upon  for  disciplinary  reasons. 
The  teacher  has  then  established  the  tone  of  his  work, 
and  should  thereafter  be  able  to  secure  instant  response 
automatically  and  habitually.  This  exercise  should  be 
practiced  occasionally  and  the  pupils'  pride  aroused  in  its 
dramatic  perfection. 


48  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

The  following  suggestions  will  be  found  useful  in  gain- 
ing and  keeping  control: 

a.  Gain   control  first;      teach  afterwards,     ^"hen  you 
have  the  attention  of  the  class,  you  have  a  compact  group 
to  talk  to,  you  have  silence,  and  you  can  then  tell  the 
pupils  what  to  do.    By  no  other  method  can  you  success- 
fully handle  large  groups. 

b.  Never  talk  to  a  class  that  is  not  paying  attention, 
except  to  get  attention.     They  must  be  convinced  that 
you  are  in  earnest,  that  you  will  accept  nothing  less  than 
entire  and  immediate  attention. 

c.  It  should  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  pupils  desire 
to  cooperate,  that  obedience  is  a  matter  of  course.     If  this 
is  not  the  case  at  the  beginning,  it   should  be  made  so 
promptly.    Turn  class  opinion  and  feeling  against  offenders. 

d.  You  should  know  confidently  and  exactly  what  is  to 
be  done.     It  is  impossible  to  instruct  the  class  upon  any 
point  which  you  do  not  yourself  understand  thoroughly. 
If  a  teacher  does  not  know  exactly  what  is  to  be  done  and 
how  it  is  to  be  done,  he  becomes  unsteady  and  uncertain, 
and  the  class  is  quick  to  recognize  the  situation  and  to 
take  advantage  of  it. 

e.  You  should  make  perfectly  clear  to  the  class  what  is 
to  be  done.     No  uniformity  of  response  can  be  hoped  for 
unless  each  pupil  understands  what  is  required  of  him. 


INTRODUCTORY  WORK  49 

/.  Attempt  one  thing  at  a  time,  and  do  it  well.  Every 
definite  accomplishment  gained  by  the  pupils  increases 
their  confidence  in  the  teacher  and  in  themselves.  The 
value  of  concentration  cannot  be  overestimated;  and 
upon  the  thoroughness  of  the  first  teaching  depends  the 
success  of  the  lessons  to  follow. 

(j.  Make  all  requirements  reasonable,  well  within  the 
ability  of  the  class.  If  you  are  sure  that  you  are  not  ask- 
ing too  much,  then  you  can  legitimately  exact  perfect  per- 
formance. If  you  ask  for  more  than  the  strength  or  intel- 
ligence or  progress  of  the  class  warrant,  the  members 
have  a  good  excuse  for  their  imperfections. 

h.  Allow  for  ignorance,  provide  for  practice,  and  demand 
perfection.  Be  just.  Recognize  and  commend  progress. 

i.  Errors  made  by  the  class  as  a  whole  are  the  fault  of 
the  teacher,  not  of  the  pupils.  Get  this  clearly  in  mind. 
If  the  work  is  not  properly  done,  if  the  class  is  listless, 
possibly  you  have  neglected  to  see  that  the  conditions  are 
favorable  for  work.  If  the  pupils  do  not  respond  cor- 
rectly, either  you  have  not  made  your  purpose  clear  to 
them  and  they  do  not  know  what  to  do,  or  you  have  not 
demanded  it  with  sufficient  vigor  and  enthusiasm.  In 
every  class,  however,  there  are  some  slow  pupils.  These 
should  get  special  attention,  but  should  not  seriously  de- 
lay the  class. 


50  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

j.  Never  do  anything  not  vitally  worth  while.  You 
have  too  much  to  do  to  waste  time  on  work  that  is  more 
trouble  than  it  is  worth.  Be  definite  in  your  purpose,  and 
then  work  directly  toward  it. 

4.  Methods  of  Class  Distribution.  —  As  soon  as  possible 
the  class  should  be  taught  placement  upon  the  floor  in  exact 
formation  by  some  method  which  may  be  accomplished 
rapidly  and  economically  and  which  may  become  habitu- 
ally perfect  in  execution.  The  best  results  will  follow  if 
the  method  of  assembly  formation  is  simple  and  unvaried. 

The  tone  of  the  first  part  of  the  lesson  is  military,  exact 
and  brisk.  To  aid  toward  this  end,  the  commands  should 
be  more  than  ordinarily  crisp,  inspiring,  and  emphatic. 

Good  posture  should  receive  immediate  emphasis,  and 
the  elevation  cues  "stand  tall,"  "head  up,"  "chest  up," 
and  other  good  posture  counsel  tending  to  inculcate  the 
military  feeling,  should  be  employed  effectively. 

At  first  the  pupils  will  need  instruction  as  to  where  they 
are  to  put  their  books  and  hang  their  clothes,  and  where 
they  are  to  form  their  lines.  These  preliminaries  should 
be  made  automatic  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  ideal  floor  formation  is  a  rectangle,  twice  as  broad 
as  it  is  deep,  and  the  teacher  is  best  placed  opposite 
the  middle  of  the  longest  side.  Of  the  various  methods  of 
distribution,  those  most  commonly  employed  are  assem- 


INTRODUCTORY  WORK  51 

bling  on  painted  spots,  and  formation  from  a  line,  with  or 
without  marching. 

a.  Assembling  on  spots  or  numbers.     This  is  the  sim- 
plest and  quickest  method.     The  pupils  on  entering  the 
gymnasium  take  their  places  directly  on  spots  which  are 
painted  on  the  floor  at  the  proper  distance  from  each 
other.     If  the  spots  are  numbered  and  each  pupil  is  as- 
signed to  a  certain  number  corresponding  to  his  number 
on  the  roll  book,  an  exact  and  rapid  way  of  taking  the  roll 
is  obtained.    The  teacher  ascertains  the  absentees  merely 
by  referring  to  the  vacant  marks.     Although  this  is  an 
easy  and  economical  manner  of  class  distribution,  it  lacks 
one  advantage;     i.e.,  it  does  not  help   to   discharge  the 
other  duties  of  the  introductory  work,  the  psychological 
and  physiological  warming  up.     The  teacher  has  saved 
time  in  administration,  but  he  will  then  have  to  take  time 
to  do  some  military  work,  marching  and  facing,  in  order 
to  get  the  effect  of  response  commands. 

Instead  of  marking  the  floor,  the  sides  and  front  of  the 
gymnasium  may  be  marked  with  letters  and  numbers  cor- 
responding to  ranks  and  files. 

b.  Formation  from  a  line.     If  the  class  is  small  enough 
to  form  a  single  line  along  the  middle  of  the  gymnasium, 
the  formation  may  be  made  directly  from  this  line  in  vari- 
ous wavs. 


52  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

At  first,  full  directions  as  to  location  of  the  line,  plac- 
ing according  to  height,  and  methods  of  taking  distance 
and  counting  off  should  be  given,  and  the  procedure 
should  be  practiced  until  rapid  accuracy  is  obtained. 

(1)  Under  the  Swedish  method,  the  pupils  are  in  double 
columns    counted    in    twos.      On    the    command  --  Open 
ranks  —  MARCH,  each  column  takes  two  steps  outward. 
On  the  command.  Open  order  --  MARCH,   numbers  one 
take  one  step  right;     numbers  two  take  one  step  left. 
This  may  be  done  on  one  command  or  it  may  be  varied. 

(2)  When  the  gymnasium  is  oblong,  an  excellent  plan 
for  larger  classes  is  to  have  the  single  file  march  to  the 
rear  of  the  room,  the  first  four  pupils  then  turning  down 
the  center  of  the  room  and  coming  up  through  the  center 
to  the  front.     As  they  come  forward,  they  should  take 
arm's  length  distance.     The  following  fours  will  execute 
this  movement  in  a  similar  manner.     Both  ranks  and  files 
should   be   in   proper   alignment.      The   interval   between 
ranks  will  be  approximately  twice  full  arm's  length  dis- 
tance.    If  desired,  marks  indicating  where  the  successive 
fours  are  to  stop  may  be  made  on  the  wall  or  on  the  run- 
ning track  at  the  side. 

For  this  method  no  commands  are  needed  in  practice 
except  for  halting,  since  the  class  is  trained  to  follow  in- 
variably the  prescribed  movement. 


INTRODUCTORY  WORK  53 

For  teaching  this  method  use  the  following  detailed 
command :  (a)  Form  column  of  fours  by  the  left  flank, 
MARCH!  (b)  Open  order  from  center,  twice  arm's  length 
interval,  MARCH!  (c)  First  four,  mark  time,  MARCH! 
(d)  Succeeding  fours  to  arm's  length  distance  and  mark  time, 
MARCH!  (e)  Class  —  HALT !  (Arms  come  to  side  on 
halt.) 

(3)  Another  method  of  distribution  for  larger  classes  is 
the  following:    The  pupils  count  in  fours.     With  number 
one  as  a  pivot,  each  four  executes  a  right  turn  (a  quarter 
circle)  in  four  steps.    This  forms  a  column  of  fours.    Then 
each  four  opens  order  sideways  to  the  left  until  the  ex- 
tended fingertips  no  longer  touch,  guiding  sideways  and 
forward.     This  is  rapid  and  effective,  and  may  be  done 
in    double    time.     It   may  be    done    with    two,  three,  or 
four   lines    assembled    on    one    side    of    the    gymnasium, 
in  which   case  the  pupils   "give  way"   to  the  left  until 
all    are    properly   placed.      Command:    Fours   right,    and 
open  order  sideways  left,  double  time,  MARCH!    Class - 
HALT! 

(4)  When  the  military  method  of  distribution  into  rec- 
tangular formation  is  to  be  used,  the  line  counts  in  fours; 
on  command,  the  numbers  one  step  off,  followed  at  a  dis- 
tance of  four  paces  (or  two)  by  the  numbers  two ;  numbers 
three  and  four  follow.     If  there  is  a  second  rank,  number 


54  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

one  starts  four  (or  two)  counts  after  number  four  of  the 
first  rank,  etc.  Command:  Take  distance  (two  steps) 
MARCH!  Class  —  HALT! 

5.  Attendance  Records.  -  -  The  teacher  may  attend  to 
this  matter  himself  or  may  appoint  a  monitor  or  captain 
to  do  it.  If  the  class  is  divided  into  squads,  the  squad 
captain  should  be  responsible  for  his  own  group.  If  the 
teacher  delegates  the  duty  of  taking  attendance,  he  will 
find  it  wise  to  check  up  the  roll  himself  occasionally  to 
make  sure  that  the  monitor  is  correct.  Whatever  method 
is  used  must  be  rapid  and  must  be  exact. 

a.  Counting.     If  the  class  comes  from  another  teacher 
with  its  attendance  record,  it  is  merely  necessary  to  ver- 
ify it  by  counting.    This  can  be  done  either  by  the  teacher 
or  by  the  class  captain. 

b.  Floor  marks.     If  the  class  assembles  on  floor  marks, 
the  vacant  marks  may  be  noted.     If  the  marks  are  num- 
bered and  each  pupil  is  assigned  to  a  certain  number  cor- 
responding to  his  number  in  the  roll  book,  the  absences 
may  be  quickly  checked. 

c.  Calling  the  roll.     If  the  class  is  small,  calling  the  roll 
is  an  effective  method:    otherwise  it  takes  too  much  time. 
It  has  the  decided  advantage  of  familiarizing  the  teacher 
with  the  names  of  the  pupils,  and  thus  fosters  personal 
relationship  and  aids  discipline. 


INTRODUCTORY  WORK  55 

6.  Inspection. -- Following  the  taking  of   attendance, 
there  is  an  opportunity  for  a  class  inspection.     This  in- 
spection may  be  military,  for  good  posture;    or  it  may  be 
hygienic,  for  cleanliness  of  person ;  or  it  may  be  for  proper 
preparation  of  costume;   or  for  all  three.     The  beneficial 
effect  will  be  increased  if  the  inspection  is  conducted  with 
some  ceremony.     If  the  results  are  made  a  matter  of  rec- 
ord they  may  be  posted  and  thus  used  to  stimulate  im- 
provement in  personal  hygiene. 

7.  Gymnastic  Records.  —  Combined  with  records  of  at- 
tendance and  inspection,  the  teacher  may  well  keep  rec- 
ords  of   personal   gymnastic   and   athletic   performances, 
such  as  in  basket  ball  throw,  standing  broad  jump,  run- 
ning events,  goal  throwing,  and  the  like. 

8.  Various   Forms    of   Record.  --  a.    The  teacher's  roll 
book  —  containing  class  names,  numbers,  attendance,  ex- 
cuses, marks  for  conduct,  marks  for  tests,  and  the  final 
term  rating.     It  may  also  contain  marks  from  the  daily 
inspection. 

b.  Pupil's    record    card  —  showing    records    of    weekly 
tests  in  athletics,  connoting  improvement,  and  stimulat- 
ing training,  and  serving  as  a  basis  for  the  individual  badge, 
test  squad,  and  class  competition.     It  may  also  contain 
hygienic  inspection  records. 

c.  Physical  record   card  —  showing   the   results   of   the 


56  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

physical  examination  and  its  follow-up.  This  may  be  com- 
bined with  the  pupils'  record  card. 

d.  Bulletin  board.  —  On  this  may  be  posted  the  best 
individual  records  in  athletic  events,  squad  and  class 
group  competition  records,  results  of  games,  schedules  of 
future  games,  test  exercises  for  examination,  typical  exer- 
cises for  the  grade  to  memorize,  newspaper  clippings,  and 
interesting  pictures. 

9.  Methods  of  Handling  Apparatus.  —  Hand  apparatus 
is  most  commonly  kept  in  locking  racks  or  cabinets  along 
the  walls  of  the  gymnasium.  When  it  is  to  be  used  in  the 
lesson,  the  pupils  usually  take  it  before  the  class  is  dis- 
tributed on  the  floor,  thus  accomplishing  incidentally  some 
of  the  introductory  work  of  marching  and  facing.  This 
operation  may  be  conducted  in  two  ways,  informally  and 
formally.  If  it  is  done  informally,  time  will  be  saved;  but 
the  formal  method  may  have  the  advantage  of  motor 
training.  If  a  formal  method  is  used  it  should  be  exact. 

The  pupils  may  take  the  dumb-bells,  or  whatever  ap- 
paratus is  to  be  used,  as  they  are  marching  past  the 
racks.  A  well-trained  class  can  do  this  without  losing 
much  distance,  but  in  general  there  is  apt  to  be  confusion 
and  delay,  as  the  children  will  reach  hurriedly  for  the 
apparatus,  and  if  they  do  not  get  it  or  if  they  hesitate  in 
making  a  selection,  the  continuity  of  the  line  is  destroyed. 


57 

They  may  be  trained  to  use  this  method  accurately,  but 
its  difficulty  makes  it  of  questionable  value.  If  wands  are 
to  be  used,  a  monitor  may  be  stationed  at  the  rack  to 
hand  the  apparatus  to  the  pupils. 

The  more  exact  method  is  to  halt  the  pupils  in  one  line 
or  more  opposite  the  racks  and  facing  the  apparatus. 
Upon  the  command  Taking  apparatus  —  ONE,  the  pupils 
in  the  line  next  the  racks  take  a  step  forward  and  put 
their  hands  on  the  dumb-bells  and  stand  until  the  count 
TWO  is  given.  On  that  count  they  snap  the  bells  down 
to  the  side  and  step  back  to  place.  This  at  most  should 
take  two  steps  and  be  done  on  counts.  If  there  are  two 
lines,  the  first  file  steps  behind  the  second,  and  these  lat- 
ter take  the  bells  in  the  same  manner  and  step  back,  on 
counts.  If  the  apparatus  is  arranged  on  two  sides  of  the 
room,  this  can  be  taken  very  quickly. 

When  the  class  is  distributed,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
place  the  apparatus  on  the  floor  out  of  the  way,  in  order 
that  the  lesson  may  proceed.  It  is  best  placed  to  the  left. 
The  essentials  are  that  the  exercise  should  be  done  in 
military,  exact  fashion,  and  that  the  pupils  should  get  the 
apparatus  squarely  and  securely  placed.  Indian  clubs 
and  dumb-bells  may  be  crossed.  Wands  and  bar-bells  are 
likely  to  roll  more  or  less  despite  the  care  taken  in  place- 
ment. 


58  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

There  are  two  methods  of  placing  apparatus  —  the  in- 
formal and  the  formal.  In  the  former,  the  pupils  are 
simply  told  to  lay  the  apparatus  down.  In  the  latter 
method,  the  command  is  given,  Placing  apparatus  on  floor 
-  ONE !  The  pupils  place  their  bells  or  wands  on  the 
floor  to  the  left,  holding  their  position  with  hands  on  the 
apparatus  until  the  count  TWO  is  given.  On  that  com- 
mand they  return  to  position. 

II.     PSYCHOLOGICAL    PHASE 

1.  Individual  Response.  -  The  prerequisites  to  success- 
ful teaching  —  attention,  alertness,  and  accuracy  —  are  to 
be  established  in  the  introductory  part  of  the  lesson. 
The  pupil  must  be  ready-minded,  wide-awake,  with  his 
wits  about  him  and  all  his  thoughts  bent  upon  the  lesson 
in  progress.  Accuracy  is  a  mental  quality  as  well  as  a 
physical  expression,  and  the  teacher  will  be  unable  to  se- 
cure exactness  of  motor  response  unless  he  can  convey  to 
the  pupil  a  clear  conception  of  the  movement  desired  and 
give  him  sufficient  time  to  think  about  it.  For  this  reason 
the  teacher  should  exercise  the  greatest  care  to  give  his  re- 
sponse commands  clearly  and  with  sufficient  pause.  The 
principle  of  simplicity  should  be  adhered  to  rigidly;  no 
complexity  of  command  or  difficulty  of  execution  should 
be  permitted  to  enter  here.  This  is  not  the  place  for  in- 


59 

struction.  None  but  movements  that  are  well  known  and 
free  from  intricacy  should  be  used. 

The  simple  military  movements  used  in  putting  the 
class  on  the  floor  serve  this  mental  purpose  as  well  as  the 
purpose  of  assembly.  The  continual  impact  of  response 
commands  develops  alertness  and  fixes  the  attention. 
The  unvarying  demand  for  perfection  in  simple  move- 
ments, coupled  with  the  pupil's  own  natural  pride  in  ex- 
act performance,  favors  the  desired  accuracy  of  motor 
work. 

In  addition,  facing,  with  response  commands  given 
rhythmically  in  regular  succession  with  even  pause,  is 
most  appropriate.  It  has  the  effect  of  uniting  the  class 
into  an  harmoniously  working  whole.  These  rhythmic  re- 
sponse commands  should  never  be  used  except  for  this 
specific  purpose,  otherwise  the  custom  of  varying  the 
length  of  the  pause  should  be  followed. 

2.  Class  Consciousness. -- In  a  logical  circle,  accuracy 
aids  and  is  aided  by  the  establishing  of  a  unified  class 
consciousness.  In  marching  and  facing  the  pupils  make 
sounds  with  their  feet.  If  the  movement  is  done  cor- 
rectly by  all,  the  tone  will  be  clear  and  resounding;  if  it 
is  done  inaccurately,  the  sound  will  be  confused.  Hear- 
ing this  sound  aids  in  synchronizing  the  class;  the  indi- 
vidual pupil  is  enabled  to  attune  his  movements  to  those 


60          THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

of  all  the  others.  It  guides  them  as  counting  does.  If 
the  sounds  are  sharp  and  rhythmic,  each  a  single  clear 
note,  the  pupils  are  assured  of  excellent  performance  on 
their  part.  There  is  developed  a  sense  of  unity,  involving 
a  responsibility  on  the  part  of  each  pupil  for  the  success 
of  the  class  as  a  whole;  toward  that  success  he  feels  he  is 
contributing  and  he  becomes  deeply  interested  in  it. 

This  rhythmical  concord  and  the  sensation  of  actually 
moving  as  a  unit,  brings  about  the  consciousness  of  mass 
movement -- a  feeling  of  solidarity,  that  the  teacher  may 
foster  and  develop  until  the  class  seems  to  have  but  one 
mind,  one  body.  It  has  become  a  tractable  \vhole  instead 
of  a  group  of  separate  elements,  and  the  teacher  may  deal 
witli  it  as  such.  AYhen  this  result  has  been  obtained  in 
the  introductory  work,  the  lesson  has  great  promise  of 
proceeding  with  success. 

The  teacher  may  assist  in  the  development  of  class  con- 
sciousness and  its  retention  during  the  lesson,  by  assum- 
ing his  place  as  a  part  of  the  class;  as  its  vocal  element 
speaking  for  it  rather  than  as  an  outside  influence  speak- 
ing to  it.  Thus  instead  of  saying:  "I  will  show  you  a 
new  exercise,"  or  ''You  did  that  well,"  he  will  say,  "Now 
let  us  learn  something  new,"  "AYe  did  that  well."  In 
general,  the  use  of  "we"  and  "us"  is  preferable  to  that 
of  "I"  and  "you."  This  however  can  be  overdone.  It 


INTRODUCTORY  WORK  61 

becomes  anaemic  and  insipid  if  used  to  excess.  At  times, 
too,  the  teacher  must  separate  himself  from  the  class  and 
become  emphatically  the  commander,  the  one  in  author- 
ity. It  is  well  to  remember  that  all  talking  other  than 
commands  should  be  used  sparingly,  particularly  in  the 
introductory  section  of  the  lesson.  'Talking  down"  to 
the  class  is  never  permissible  even  with  little  children. 

Class  feeling  is  quickly  lost  by  inaccuracies  due  to  the 
use  of  over-difficult  movements,  by  interruptions  for 
whatever  cause,  or  by  inopportune  remarks  or  instruction 
by  the  teacher.  Whenever  during  the  course  of  the  lesson 
it  is  lost,  it  may  be  reestablished  by  the  use  of  simple 
facing  to  rhythmic  response  commands  as  in  the  intro- 
ductory work. 

III.     PHYSIOLOGICAL    PHASE 

1.  Physical  Adjustment.  -  -  The  object  of  the  introduc- 
tory wrork  from  the  physiological  point  of  view  is  to  se- 
cure the  proper  physical  preparation,  to  get  the  body  in 
working  trim  for  the  lesson.  There  are  three  phases  to 
this  warming-up  process: 

a.  The  muscles  are  to  be  mildly  exercised  to  prepare 
them  for  the  more  severe  work  to  follow-.  They  should 
never  be  called  upon  for  heavy  work  without  some  prep- 
aration. Muscles  cannot  exert  their  maximum  effort  the 


62  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

first  time  they  are  contracted,  and  therefore  light  exercises 
should  be  used  to  warm  them  up,  to  get  the  blood  into 
them,  and  to  heighten  the  activity  of  the  nerves,  before 
heavier  demands  are  made. 

b.  It  is  desirable  to  begin  gradually  the  relaxation  of 
the  systemic  arterioles  and  the  transfer  of  blood  to  the 
muscles.     One  of  the  important  results  of  the  contraction 
of  the  muscles  is  this  relaxation  of  the  systemic  arterioles 
and  the  blood  vessels  in  the  muscles,  thereby  allowing  the 
influx  of  more  blood  where  it  is  needed.     The  increased 
supply  of  blood  comes  from  the  splanchnic  area  where,  in 
the  capacious  vessels  of  the  abdomen,  a  large  amount  of 
blood  is  stored  when  the  body  is  at  rest.    When  exercising 
commences,  the  internal  blood  vessels  contract,  squeezing 
the  blood  up  to  the  heart,  where  it  becomes  available  for 
muscle  work.    These  modifications  are  best  brought  about 
slowly. 

c.  It  is  wise  to  increase  gradually  the  rapidity  and  com- 
pleteness of  the  heart  contractions  and  of  the  breathing. 
In  heavy  work  the  flow  of  blood  through  the  heart  is  in- 
creased in  volume,  hence  the  heart  must  beat  faster  and 
more    vigorously.     There   is   an   increased  flow   of  blood 
through  the  lungs  and  breathing  must  be  more  rapid  and 
ample.      These    readjustments    cannot    be    made    rapidly 
without  producing  a  feeling  of  discomfort.     There  is,  there- 


INTRODUCTORY  WORK  63 

fore,  a  gradual  increase  in  the  amount  and  vigor  of  mus- 
cular contraction  through  the  introductory,  corrective,  and 
educational  work  until  the  maximum  is  reached  in  the 
hygienic  section  of  the  lesson. 

2.  Methods  for  Physiological  Preparation.  -  -  The 
marching  and  facing  serve  the  needs  of  administrative  and 
mental  preparation  and  in  addition  aid  in  securing  the 
necessary  physical  adaptation.  However,  they  are  not 
sufficient  for  the  latter  purpose,  and  should  be  supple- 
mented with  running  and  deep-breathing  exercises. 

There  should  be  fifteen  to  thirty  seconds  of  running  or 
its  equivalent  in  every  introductory  period.  The  class 
formation  may  be  made  at  double  quick  time,  thus  serv- 
ing two  purposes.  This  should  not  be  attempted  until  the 
class  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  formation  and  can 
run  and  halt  accurately.  Simple  variations  of  marching, 
such  as  skipping  and  hopping,  may  also  be  used  if  the 
rhythmic  effect  is  preserved. 

After  the  formation  is  made,  countermarching  furnishes 
a  simple  method  which  is  economical  as  well,  since  the 
running  lines  will  take  no  more  room  than  does  the  class 
formation.  Each  line  may  run  forward,  the  leader  turn- 
ing squarely  about  to  the  right  (or  left),  running  to  the 
rear  of  the  room,  and  returning  to  place.  The  others  fol- 
low, and  on  reaching  their  places  continue  to  run  in  place 


64  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

until  the  command  for  halting  is  given  or  the  movement 
is  repeated. 

It  is  necessary  to  practice  halting  from  running  in  place 
before  this  exercise  can  be  done  successfully.  The  com- 
mand Class  —  HALT  is  given,  and  the  pupils  halt  on 
two  counts. 

When  teaching  countermarching  to  the  class,  it  will  be 
found  expedient  to  give  the  explanation  and  put  one  file 
through  the  exercise  first  to  show  how  it  should  be  done. 
Otherwise  there  is  likely  to  be  confusion. 

The  teacher  will  preferably  not  count  during  running. 
The  sound  made  by  the  children's  feet  answers  the  same 
purpose,  and  the  teacher  will  merely  distract  from  it  if 
he  attempts  to  count. 

Deep  breathing  should  follow  the  marching  and  run- 
ning. Inspiration  should  be  deep,  with  emphasis  on  chest 
lifting;  expiration  should  emphasize  abdominal  contrac- 
tion and  should  not  be  forced,  for  the  chest  should  re- 
main high  in  expiration. 

3.  Introductory  Work  a  Resume  of  the  Lesson. --It 
will  be  noted  that  the  introductory  section  of  the  lesson 
is  in  effect  a  brief  preliminary  resume  of  the  corrective, 
educational,  and  hygienic  work  to  follow --in  itself  a 
miniature  lesson.  The  emphasis  upon  good  posture  at  the 
beginning  corresponds  to  the  corrective  phase;  the  secur- 


INTRODUCTORY  WORK  65 

ing  of  alertness  is  distinctly  educational;    and  the  warm- 
ing up  and  running  correspond  to  the  hygienic  exercises. 

A  common  error  of  teachers  is  talking  too  much  and 
spending  too  much  time  on  this  work  which  is  purely  pre- 
paratory. Aside  from  calling  the  roll  and  inspection,  it 
should  not  take  more  than  two  minutes. 


CHAPTER   VI 

CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE 

1.  Definition  of  Corrective  Work.  —  Corrective  work 
is  a  general  term  including  many  physical  training  activ- 
ities designed  to  secure  good  posture,  to  maintain  it  when 
it  is  present,  and  to  insure  it  for  the  future.  It  includes 
good  hygiene,  hygienic  exercises,  recreative  exercises,  ath- 
letics, and  corrective  exercises:  in  brief,  all  kinds  of  phys- 
ical training  procedure  which  increase  health  and  vigor  or 
directly  work  for  good  posture. 

Corrective  exercises,  as  the  term  is  used  here,  are  move- 
ments whose  only  function  is  to  promote  good  posture. 
Their  importance  is  great:  nevertheless  they  are  of  far 
less  value  as  corrective  work  than  are  hygienic  and  recre- 
ative exercises  and  good  hygiene,  which  indirectly  but  ef- 
fectively work  for  good  posture  by  increasing  vigor. 

I.    (iOOD    POSTURE 

1.  Definition  of  Good  Posture.  --  dood  posture  is  the 
best  adjustment;  firxt.  of  the  various  bod)/  parts  to  each 
other;  and.  second,  of  the  body  as  a  irliole  to  its  eurirou- 
rnent,  tasJ:.  or  irork.  It  is  posture  that  signifies  vitality; 

66 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE  67 

the  high,  elevated  position  of  the  various  body  parts  that 
indicates  strength  and  vigor. 

The  term  corrective  work  is  used  in  an  entirely  different 
sense  by  some  to  cover  such  exercises  as  are  designed  to 
correct  deformity  or  organic  defects  of  some  sort.  Phy- 
sicians and  many  educators  are  inclined  to  apply  the  term 
to  any  exercises  given  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  any- 
thing wrong  about  the  body  itself,  which  can  be  so  cured. 

2.  Good  Adjustment.  —  Good  adjustment  is  such  adap- 
tation  as   best  favors  health,   happiness,    and   efficiency. 
Since  the  body  is  called  upon  to  do  many  kinds  of  work 
under  many  varieties  of  environmental  conditions,  there 
are  as  many  kinds  of  good  posture  as  there  are  different 
circumstances  and  different  tasks.    Sitting,  standing,  writ- 
ing, sewing,  sweeping,  resting,  and  all  the  various  house- 
hold and  trade  movements,  each  require  a  different  ad- 
justment  and   therefore   a   different   posture.     The  three 
criteria  of  good  posture  are:     Does  it  work  toward  happi- 
ness?   Does  it  favor  health?    Does  it  aid  efficiency? 

3.  The  Essentials  of  Good  Adjustment.  —  a.    External 
essentials  —  Related  to  work.     Those  attitudes  or  adjust- 
ments of  the  body  parts  are  best  in  which   the  muscular 
force  may  be  directly  and  economically  applied.     This  is  a 
field  of  great  interest  and  importance  to  industry  especially, 
but  too  extensive  to  be  discussed  in  the  present  volume. 


68  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

b.  Internal  essentials  --  (1)  The  relations  of  the  body 
parts.  Those  positions  are  best  in  which  the  organs  are 
held  in  their  normal  places  and  are  not  pressed  or  crowded 
against  each  other.  In  the  erect  position  they  are  held 
upward  by  their  own  attachments. 

(C2)  The  expenditure  of  energy  --  Ease.  That  posture 
which  is  maintained  with  least  effort  is  best.  The  erect, 
straight,  high-held,  vertical  position  of  the  trunk  is  best 
because  it  places  the  various  organs  in  their  normal  posi- 
tion. Nevertheless  it  is  more  expensive  in  muscular  ef- 
fort. Up  to  a  certain  point  the  increased  expenditure  of 
energy  is  justified  by  the  improvement  in  organic  condi- 
tions. Beyond  this  point  fatigue  overbalances  the  benefit 
and  good  posture  costs  more  than  it  is  worth. 

It  is  the  work  and  aim  of  physical  training  to  raise  this 
point  as  much  as  possible  and  so  develop  strength  and 
vigor  of  the  body  that  good  position  may  easily  be  held 
without  too  great  a  vital  expense. 

In  this  volume  the  term  good  posture  will  have  special 
reference  to  the  high-held  position  of  vitality,  and  bad 
posture  to  the  depressed  position  of  fatigue. 

II.    BAD    POSTURE 

1.  Causes  of  Bad  Posture.  -  -  Bad  posture  is  usually 
due  to  a  combination  of  causes;  i.e.,  hereditary  malad- 


CORRECTIVE   WORK  FOR   GOOD   POSTURE  69 

justment,  the  influence  of  gravity,  and  lack  of  vitality  or 
tone. 

The  erect  position  is  biologically  a  recent  one,  and  in 
the  change  from  a  horizontal  to  a  vertical  position,  the 
harmonious  relationship  of  the  various  body  parts  is  de- 
stroyed; hence  the  mechanism  for  the  support  of  these 
parts  is  relatively  weak  and  is  easily  wearied  by  gravity. 
All  these  maladjustments  of  body  parts  are  primarily 
ptoses,  and  are  due  to  the  continual  action  of  gravity 
upon  the  body  thus  placed  at  a  disadvantage.  The  up- 
right position  is  more  expensive  in  vital  energy,  and  there- 
fore all  the  body  parts  tend  to  sag.  Ptosis  is  normally 
overcome  by  good  muscular  tone. 

2.  Definition  of  Ptosis. -- Ptosis  is  a  downward  dis- 
placement or  depression  of  the  various  body  parts.  It  is 
found  in  the  drooping  of  the  head,  shoulders,  ribs;  fre- 
quently in  the  depression  of  the  stomach,  intestines,  and 
other  abdominal  organs;  in  forward,  backward,  and  lat- 
eral curvatures  of  the  spine.  Any  of  these  gives  Ihe  body 
an  appearance  of  sagging  downward.  There  are  four 
kinds  of  ptoses:  skeletal,  visceral,  circulatory,  and  emo- 
tional. They  are  more  often  found  associated  than  sin- 
gly. Each  symptom  evidences  a  condition  which  is  the 
result  of  low  vitality  and  which  in  turn  lends  to  cause 
low  vitality,  thereby  establishing  a  vicious  circle. 


70  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

3.  Skeletal  Ptosis.  —  Skeletal  ptosis  is  the  downward 
displacement  of  bones,  and  is  shown  in  the  drooping  of 
the  head,  the  exaggeration  of  the  normal  curves  of  the 
spine,  the  falling  in  and  down  of  the  chest.    These  cause 
a  decrease  in  standing  height  as  compared  with  horizontal 
length,  a  comparison  which  is  a  definite  test  of  poor  skele- 
tal   posture    of   the   flexible    (but    not    the   static)    type. 
Skeletal  ptosis  is  caused  by  weak  tone,  by  the  relaxation 
or  chronic  weariness  of  the  muscles  which  hold  the  body 
erect.    It  is  the  natural  adjustment  of  the  body  to  fatigue. 

4.  Visceral  Ptosis.  -  -  Visceral  ptosis  is  the  downward 
displacement  of  the  internal  organs,  and  is  usually  accom- 
panied by  skeletal  ptosis.     It  may  be  local;     that  is,  one 
organ  only  may  be  displaced;     or  general,  in  which  case 
the  whole  body  contents  sag  downward.     In  the  latter 
case  the  chest  is  flattened,  its  capacity  is  decreased,  and 
the  abdomen  becomes  protuberant,  the  lower  ribs  often 
bulging.     It  is  the  result  of  constitutional  inferiority,  low 
vitality,  or  bad  habit.     Its  presence  maybe  ascertained  by 
percussion  of  the  organs  to  determine  their  position,  by 
the  use  of  the  X-ray,  and  by  comparing  the  girth  of  the 
chest  and  the  abdomen. 

5.  Circulatory  Ptosis.  —  Circulatory  ptosis  is  the  down- 
ward displacement  of  blood  and  its  collection  in  the  ab- 
dominal veins  and  arteries.     The  splanchnic  veins  in  the 


CORRECTIVE   WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE 


71 


abdomen  form  the  most  capacious  system  of  blood-ves- 
sels in  the  body,  and  if  they  are  relaxed  and  distended,  a 
large  amount  of  the  blood  which  should  be  in  other  parts 
of  the  body  drains  into  them.  In  the  erect  position,  these 
vessels  continually  work  against  the  force  of  gravity. 


Rise 


Blood  Pressure 


Fall 


\ 

^     \ 

tp      \ 

<j>      \ 

"     \ 

*      \\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

:  \ 

!   \ 

\ 

Oto4 

100 

95 

90 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

5"  8 

95 

90 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

9"  12 

90 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

00 

55 

50 

45 

40 

13  "16 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

17  "  20 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

21-24 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

25"2S 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

29  "32 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

33  "36 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

37  "  40 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

41  "44 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

SCALE  OF  CIRCULATORY  EFFICIENCY  EXPRESSED  IN  PERCENTAGES 

100  per  cent  corresponds  in  general  to  perfect  condition  and  0  approximates  the  border 
line  of  illness.     The  average  business  man  ranges  from  45  to  (50  per  cent. 

They  are  kept  from  distention  by  the  contraction  and 
tone  of  the  muscles  in  their  walls,  which  are  under  sym- 
pathetic nervous  control,  and  by  the  contraction  and  tone 
of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen.  If  there  is  an  insufficiency 
of  nervous  control  or  if  the  abdominal  wall  is  weak,  per- 
mitting relaxation,  the  resistance  to  the  pressure  of  grav- 
ity is  lessened  and  ptosis  results. 


72  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

The  test  of  circulatory  ptosis  is  based  upon  the  fact 
that  the  systolic  blood  pressure  should  rise  on  standing 
and  the  heart  rate  should  not  increase.  In  persons  weak, 
ill,  or  fatigued  the  systolic  blood  pressure  fails  to  rise  and 
may  even  fall  while  the  heart  rate  tends  to  increase.  The 
test  is  conducted  as  follows:  The  cuff  of  the  sphygmo- 
manometer  is  placed  around  the  upper  arm,  the  subject 
lies  down  comfortably  with  a  low  pillow,  the  heart  rate  is 
counted  by  quarter  minutes  until  two  successive  quarter 
minutes  are  the  same:  the  systolic  pressure  is  then  taken. 
The  subject  stands  and  the  heart  rate  and  blood  pressure 
are  taken  in  a  similar  manner.  The  increase  or  decrease 
in  blood  pressure  and  heart  rate  are  noted  and  the  values 
are  indicated  on  the  preceding  scale.  The  scale  may  be 
extended  if  necessary  for  cases  that  are  seriously  deficient 
or  unusually  fit. 

6.  An  Emotional  Ptosis.  -  -  This  is  a  depression  of  the 
spirits.  The  terms  dejected,  depressed,  and  downcast  are  all 
derived  from  descriptions  of  physical  states  that  by  racially 
old  practice  and  habit  have  become  applied  to  emotional 
states  and  refer  to  unpleasant  feelings  of  the  asthenic  type. 
Additional  more  or  less  colloquial  terms  are  downhearted 
and  doicn-in-the-mouth.  These  terms,  descriptive  of  emo- 
tional ptosis  and  derived  from  physical  states,  indicate 
the  correlation  between  the  mental  and  the  physical. 


ILLUSTRATING  CIRCULATORY  PTOSIS 

A  thin-walled  rubber  tube  filled  with  water  is  used  to  illustrate  the  effect  of  gravity 
upon  the  circulation. 

No.  1.    The  tube  at  rest  in  the  horizontal  position. 

No.  2.  The  tube  is  in  the  vertical  position  and  shows  the  effect  of  gravity  —  reducing 
the  blood  content  and  the  blood  pressure  in  the  upper  body.  This  is  permitted  by  the 
weakness  of  the  blood  vessels  in  the  lower  body  where  the  blood  collects.  This  is  circula- 
tory ptosis.  It  denotes  general  weakness  and  occurs  markedly  in  fainting. 

No.  3.  A  normal  condition  with  the  blood  pressure  and  blood  content  rising  in  the 
upper  body  because  of  a  normal  contraction  of  the  vessels  in  the  lower  body. 


74  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

7.  Correlation  of  Ptoses.  —  All  four  ptoses  as  a  rule 
occur  together.     Any  one  tends  to  cause  the  others,  but 
the  relation  of  ptoses  to  each  other  is  not  so  greatly  that 
of  cause  and  effect  as  it  is  that  of  the  effects  of  a  common 
cause;   to  wit,  lowered  vitality. 

Ptoses  are  likely  to  occur  after  illness,  a  period  of  loss 
of  sleep,  chronic  digestive  disturbances,  and  the  like. 
Therefore  ptoses  are  not  to  be  removed  permanently  with- 
out the  removal  of  the  common  cause;  i.e.,  lowered  vital- 
ity, the  very  term  in  itself  expressing  a  ptosis.  There 
are,  however,  various  other  influences  and  substances  which 
bear  upon  the  case. 

8.  Hereditary  Maladjustment.  -  -  The  biological  causes 
of  bad  posture  are  "disharmonies,'"  which  correspond  to 
the  three  forms  of  ptosis.    These  are  due  to  the  fact  that 
evolution  has  brought  the  body  from  a  posture  of  locomo- 
tion on  all  fours  with  the  trunk  horizontal,  up  through 
gradual  stages  to  the  posture  with  the  trunk  erect.     The 
body  has  not  yet  sufficiently  adapted  itself  to  the  change, 
and  the  various  "disharmonies''  remain. 

a.  Skeletal  disharmony.  The  head,  instead  of  being  in 
the  long  axis  of  the  body,  has  rotated  90  degrees  to  this 
axis.  It  is  kept  erect  by  muscular  force  only,  and  tends 
to  go  forward  and  downward  if  the  muscles  are  weak.  Of 
the  changes  in  articulation,  those  of  the  hip  and  neck  are 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE     75 

relatively  well  adjusted.  The  arch  of  the  foot  presents  a 
skeletal  disharmony  of  the  worst  type;  the  weight  of  the 
body  now  rests  on  the  arch,  which  was  never  meant  for 
that  purpose,  therefore,  the  arch  breaks  down,  causing  flat 
foot. 

b.  Visceral  disharmony.     In  the  old  horizontal  position 
of  the  trunk,  the  internal  organs  hung  from  their  attach- 
ments to  the  spinal  column  with  sufficient  room  and  with 
proper  interrelationship.     In  the  erect  position,  they  hang 
from  the  side  rather  than  from  the  top  of  the  abdominal 
cavity.     The  intestines  are  heaped  down  in  the  bottom  of 
the  abdominal  chamber,  and  constipation  and  autointoxi- 
cation result.     The  contents  of  the  chest  rest  upon  the 
diaphragm,  which  in  turn  presses  down  upon  the  intes- 
tines.    The  abdominal  wall  tends  to  relax,  allowing  the 
whole  body  contents  to   sag  down   upon  the  pelvis  and 
causing  the  abdomen  to  protrude.     The  best  that  can  be 
done  to  relieve  this  condition  is  to  keep  the  chest  raised 
and  to  keep  the  intestines  from  crowding  down  by  means 

of  strengthening  the  lower  abdominal  muscles. 

"  • 

c.  Circulatory  disharmony.     Our  physical  machinery  is 
relatively  weak  because  of  the  change  of  position  from  the 
horizontal  to  the  erect,  which  is  biologically  recent.     It  is 
very  easily  wearied,  and  allows  the  blood  and  lymph  to  go 
down  in  response  to  the  influence  of  gravity.     Circulatory 


76  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

disharmony  is  evidenced  in  the  difficulty  that  is  expe- 
rienced in  getting  the  blood  returned  from  the  feet  up  to 
the  right  side  of  the  heart.  It  is  assisted  by  the  action  of 
the  leg  muscles;  'the  contraction  and  tone  of  the  muscles 
of  the  abdomen,  which  help  to  force  the  blood  upward; 
and  the  suction  of  the  chest,  the  "aspiration  of  the  thorax," 
which  lifts  the  blood  out  of  the  abdomen  and  delivers  it 
to  the  heart.  Circulatory  ptosis  is  relieved  by  increasing 
the  tone  and  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  thereby 
increasing  the  abdominal  pressure  by  raising  the  chest, 
which  increases  the  thoracic  aspiration,  but  most  of  all  by 
increasing  the  tone  and  vitality  of  the  muscles  in  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  abdomen  by  hygienic  measures. 

9.  Lack  of  Vitality  or  Tone.  —  Anything  that  causes 
lower  vitality,  anything  that  works  against  health,  or  any- 
thing  that    works   against   happiness,    increases   the   ten- 
dency toward  bad  posture.     Bad  posture  is  not  so  much  a 
cause  of  low  vitality  as  it  is  a  sign  or  expression  of  past  or 
present  physical  or  mental  depression.     If  the  person  is 
sick  or  hurt,  the  skeletal  muscles  lose  tone  and  the  body 
droops;     if    the    mind    is   dejected    and   low-spirited,   the 
physical  attitude  corresponds  to  the  mental  state.     Body 
and  mind  are  depressed  together. 

10.  Posture   and   Efficiency.  -  -  It  has  been  established 
by  statistical  tests  that  physical  or  mental  defect  or  weak- 


77 

ness  is  in  general  accompanied  by  poor  posture.  The 
average  record  of  pupils  in  the  poor  posture  group  has 
been  found  to  be  appreciably  lower  than  the  good  posture 
group,  in  attendance,  in  deportment,  in  physical  activity 
and  endurance,  in  manual  training,  and  in  commercial 
success  after  leaving  school.  It  is  clear  that  anything 
that  lowers  vitality  causes  bad  posture.  /  To  what  extent 
bad  posture  causes  poor  vitality  is  not  accurately  known. 
It  is  certain  that  by  assuming  good  posture,  raising  the 
chest  and  head,  one  feels  better.  This  is  partly  psy- 
chological and  partly  due  to  an  actual  improvement  in 
the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

11.  Limitation  of    Corrective   Measures. -- In   the  en- 
deavor to  correct  bad  posture  through  fundamental  causes 
which  result  in  ptosis,   nothing  can  be  done  to  remove 
hereditary  disharmonies,  and  little  is  possible  in  resisting 
the  influence  of  gravity,  except  the  seeking  of  proper  rest 
and  the  habitual  assumption  of  corrective  positions;    but 
in  overcoming  the  third  factor,  lack  of  vitality  or  tone, 
physical  training  finds  its  great  opportunity. 

12.  The  Essentials  of  Tone. --The  body  is  kept  erect 
by  bones,  muscles,  and  ligaments.     The  muscles  keep  the 
bones  and  ligaments  in  position.    Thus,  if  the  muscles  are 
strong  and  in  good  tone,  they  will  hold  the  body  parts  up 
properly,  the  posture  will  be  good,  the  trunk  erect,  the 


78  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

chest  up.  and  the  head  held  high.  These  are  the  signs  of 
vitality.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  vitality  is  low.  the  body 
yields  to  the  influence  of  gravity  and  relaxes.  Muscular 
tone  continually  works  against  this  influence.  It  is  de- 
pendent upon  muscular  training  and  upon  the  power  of 
the  nervous  system  which  presides  over  the  nutrition  of 
the  muscles.  This  applies  to  both  the  skeletal  muscles 
and  the  muscles  of  the  veins  of  the  abdomen  which  con- 
trol blood  ptosis. 

13.  The  Muscular  Element  in  Muscular  Tone.  - 
a.  The  nutrition  of  the  muscles  which  keep  the  trunk 
erect,  chest  high,  and  abdomen  flat  in  a  large  part  deter- 
mine their  tone  and  their  success  in  doing  the  work  for 
good  posture.  Hence,  good  food,  fresh  air.  and  the  like 
are  fundamental  to  good  posture. 

6.  The  actual  strength  of  the  muscles  is  important, 
for  they  must  be  kept  in  a  state  of  semicontraction, 
holding  the  body  straight  and  its  parts  adjusted  and 
high.  The  stronger  they  are.  within  reasonable  limits, 
the  better.  Hence,  they  must  get  sufficient  special  ex- 
ercise. 

c.  The  muscles  which  hold  body  parts  in  good  position 
against  gravity  must  acquire  the  structural  habit  of  being 
short,  for  lengthening  means  giving  way.  and  permits 
their  loads  to  droop  and  fall  to  lower  positions.  Muscles 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE     79 

tend  to  assume  the  state  in  which  they  are  most  used; 
hence,  if  we  desire  short  muscles,  we  must  exercise  them 
in  a  shortened  state.  Thus,  we  use  exercises  in  which  the 
movement  is  confined  to  the  proximal  (nearest  to  the 
trunk)  third  or  half  of  the  arc  or  movement,  and  in  this 
we  emphasize  complete  contractions  of  the  muscles  we  de- 
sire to  shorten. 

14.  The  Nervous  Element  in  Muscular  Tone.  —  Mus- 
cular tone  is  a  continual  unnoticed  contraction  of  the 
muscle  which  is  really  due  to  nervous  impulses  flowing  to 
the  muscle  along  the  motor  nerve  at  the  rate  of  twelve  to 
twenty  impulses  a  second.  These  impulses  come  from  the 
motor  cells  in  the  interior  of  the  spinal  cord  and  are  vigor- 
ous or  weak  according  to  their  nutrition  and  the  amount 
of  fatigue.  When  they  are  well  nourished  and  fresh,  the 
muscular  tone  is  good.  When  they  are  overcome  or  ex- 
hausted, the  muscular  tone  is  correspondingly  poor. 
Hence,  nutrition  and  rest  have  an  increased  significance 
in  posture. 

When  the  motor  nerve  is  cut  or  the  motor  cells  are  de- 
stroyed by  disease,  as  in  infantile  paralysis,  the  muscle 
loses  its  tone,  becomes  weak  and  anaemic,  and  ceases  to 
grow;  it  becomes  "atrophic."  This  proves  that  the  motor 
cells  preside  over  the  nutrition  of  the  muscles,  sending 
them  continually  what  is  called  the  "trophic  force."  This 


80  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

indicates  again  the  essential  role  the  nervous  system  plays 
in  muscle  condition. 

The  important  little  muscles  surrounding  the  arteries 
and  veins  are  supplied  with  nerves  coming  from  sympa- 
thetic centers  and  are  dependent  upon  them  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  voluntary  muscles  are  dependent  upon 
the  cells  of  the  spinal  cord.  Since  these  muscles  control 
the  distribution  of  the  blood,  and  particularly  prevent 
blood  ptosis,  the  condition  of  the  sympathetic  (autonomic) 
nervous  system  is  of  great  importance. 

The  digestive  glands  --  the  liver  and  the  pancreas  and 
the  muscular  walls  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  —  are  all 
directed  and  managed  by  the  sympathetic  nervous  system. 
Thus  the  nerve  centers  direct  processes  upon  which  they 
themselves  depend  for  nourishment. 

15.  Examples  of  Good  and  Poor  Posture.  -  -  The  pho- 
tographs of  the  excellently  built  young  man  given  on  page 

81  should  be  studied  carefully,  for  they  illustrate  the  im- 
portant points  in  the  discussion  of  posture.     The  photo- 
graphs were  taken  within  a  few  minutes  of  each  other. 
The  subject  remained  standing  with  his  feet  in  the  same 
place.     The  only  difference  is  in  his  slumping  from  good 
posture  to  bad. 

The  decrease  in  total  height  which  amounts,  in  this 
case,  to  four  and  a  half  inches,  is  to  be  noted.  This  is  not 


(!OOD  POSTURE  AND  BAD 


82  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

the  result  of  bending  the  knee,  for  the  right  leg  is  just  as 
straight  as  it  was  in  good  posture.  The  decrease  in  height 
comes  from  the  slumping  down  of  one  side  of  the  pelvis 
and  the  increase  in  the  curves  of  the  lumbar,  dorsal,  and 
cervical  spine. 

The  illustration  shows  very  clearly  the  downward  dis- 
placement of  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  which, 
summed  up,  make  the  difference  in  height.  The  head  is 
downward,  tilted  forward,  hanging  heavily  upon  the  pos- 
terior neck  muscles  instead  of  being  evenly  poised  on  the 
cervical  vertebra1.  The  shoulders  go  downward.  It  will 
be  seen,  however,  that  they  do  not  go  forward,  but  the 
chest  rolls  downward  under  the  arm,  and  protrudes  out- 
ward at  the  back.  The  whole  downward  displacement  of 
the  chest  and  the  disappearance  of  the  line  of  the  lower 
ribs  are  noteworthy. 

In  good  posture  the  outline  of  the  body  from  the  neck 
downward  over  the  abdomen  is  convex,  particularly  over 
the  thorax.  In  bad  posture  this  line  is  concave  except  for 
the  slight  projection  of  the  pectoral  muscles.  The  chest 
in  good  posture  is  deep,  the  abdomen  shallow.  In  bad 
posture  the  contents  of  the  abdomen  simply  drop  down- 
ward and  cause  a  bulge  at  the  lower  waist  line. 

The  two  photographs  show  clearly  the  difference  in 
aspect.  The  one  posture  is  high,  straight,  elevated,  in- 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE     83 

spired,   and  strong;    the  other  lax,  depressed,  downcast, 
and  weak. 

III.       HOW    TO   ACHIEVE    GOOD    POSTURE 

The  first  task  of  the  teacher  is  the  establishment  by 
various  methods  of  a  personal  consciousness  and  experi- 
ence of  what  good  posture  really  is. 

1.  Description  and  Demonstration.  -    In  our  endeavor 
to  achieve  good  posture,  children  should  be  informed  in  a 
lively  interesting  way  as  to  what  it  is.     P]mphasis  should 
be  placed  upon  the  high  head,  lifted  chest,  straight  back, 
etc.     Words  should  be  chosen  which  will  be  of  use  after- 
wards as  "elevation  cues."     Little  time,  however,  need  be 
wasted  upon  description,  for  the  most  important  thing  for 
the  pupils  to  know  is  how  it  feels  to  stand  in  good  pos- 
ture.     Before  the  class,   the  teacher  should  demonstrate 
the  various  points,  contrasting  the  erect  good  posture  with 
the  lowered  poor  posture. 

2.  Experience  in  Good  Posture.  -  -  The  teacher  of  phys- 
ical training  experiences  the  greatest  difficulty  in  making 
his  pupils  understand  just  why  their  postures  are  wrong, 
and  furthermore  what  kind  of  effort  they  should  make  to 
correct  the  bad  postures.      This  is  the  great  fundamental 
difficulty  in  the  endeavor  to  get  school  children   to  stand 
up  straight.      They  have  been  told  to  stand  up  straight, 


84  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

but  they  do  not  know  how.  Usually  they  throw  the 
shoulders  back  and,  in  an  endeavor  to  throw  the  chest  out, 
stick  out  the  stomach,  thus  drawing  the  hips  forward  and 
stiffening  the  arms  straight  down  by  the  sides  like  pokers. 
This  is  very  wrong. 

3.  Elevation  Cues.  -  -  There  are  various  devices  used 
to  put  children  in  good  posture.  The  first  consists  of  com- 
mands called  "elevation  cues"  because  they  are  calcu- 
lated to  work  against  ptosis.  The  most  important  of 
these  are  as  follows: 

Stand  tall 

Head  up 

Head  high 

Lift  the  head 

Stretch  the  head  upward 

Chest  high 

Lift  the  chest 

"Waist  flat,"  "Lift  the  waist  up,"  "Stretch  the  knees," 
"Lift  upward  from  the  ankle."  and  "Stretch  the  body 
upward"  -all  these  cues  result  in  increased  action  of  the 
muscles  which  keep  the  body  erect.  Additional  colloquial 
adjurations  may  be  used  by  the  teacher  such  as,  "Try  to 
make  the  head  touch  the  ceiling,"  "Stand  as  if  you  were 
looking  over  a  fence,"  "Prick  up  your  ears,"  "Make  be- 
lieve you  are  a  soldier,"  "Grow  up  tall,"  etc.  The  com- 


86  THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

mands  "Chest  out,"  "Shoulders  back,"  "Hips  back," 
"Chin  in"  and  others  calling  for  antero-posterior  adjust- 
ments are  discarded. 

Words  alone  will  not  bring  results.  The  wall  is  a  most 
convenient  gymnastic  apparatus.  A  pupil  who  cannot 
take  correct  posture  exercises  may  be  stood  up  with  back 
against  the  wall  and  with,  perhaps,  a  book  upon  his  head. 
Feeling  the  wall  against  his  back  he  will  straighten  up  and 
try  to  be  as  tall  as  possible.  Placing  the  hand  on  the  ab- 
domen and  pressing  in  and  up  will  help  him  decrease  the 
lumbar  curve.  Stretching  the  arms  down  at  the  side,  still 
keeping  the  shoulders  and  hips  back  against  the  wall,  will 
help  him  to  straighten  up  taller.  Bending  the  head  back- 
ward and  looking  at  the  ceiling,  while  maintaining  an  en- 
deavor to  keep  the  shoulders  close  to  the  wall,  will  assist 
materially.  (See  pictures  of  girl  on  page  85.) 

Once  good  posture  is  experienced,  a  pupil  should  go 
about  his  ordinary  business,  sitting,  standing,  working,  or 
exercising  while  maintaining  the  high  head  and  chest 
position.  He  should  be  told,  and  he  can  see  for  himself, 
that  he  can  do  this  without  much  effort  and  without 
stiffness. 

A  full-length  mirror,  in  which  pupils  can  see  their  de- 
fects and  finally  their  good  posture,  is  very  valuable  in 
good-posture  work.  Every  well-equipped  gymnasium 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE     87 

should  have  a  double  or  triple  mirror  permitting  the  pupil 
to  see  himself  in  profile. 

4.  Manual   Correction.  -  -  Very  seldom  is  it  necessary 
for  a  teacher  to  place  his  hands  upon  the  pupil  for  any 
purpose.  As  a  rule  the  example  of  the  teacher,  elevation 
cues,  and  static  exercises  will  produce  the  desired  result. 
Standing  behind  the  pupil,  it  is  sometimes  useful  to  place 
the  finger  tips  under  the  mastoid  processes,  on  the  bony 
prominence  just  below  and  back  of  the  ear  and  to  press 
upward.    This  helps  the  pupil  to  feel  the  correct  position 
of  the  head. 

The  following  method  is  frequently  very  helpful:  The 
pupil  places  his  hand  on  the  lower  abdomen  or  on  the 
belt  and  presses  up.  If  he  does  not  get  the  correct 
position  the  teacher  may  place  his  hand  on  the  pupil's. 
The  other  hand  is  placed  on  the  back  just  below  the  shoul- 
der blades.  In  this  position  the  teacher  can  control  the 
whole  body  and  can  lift  up  the  chest. 

5.  Static  Exercises.  -  -  The  use  of  the  wall  and  the  mir- 
ror require  the  teacher's  individual  attention.     There  are 
certain  static  exercises  which  may  be  used  for  the  whole 
class.     The  only  direct  good  posture  exercises  which  I  put 
into  official  use  for  all  the  eight  hundred  thousand  chil- 
dren in   the  public  schools  of  New  York  City,  were  con- 
fined to  four  of  this  special  type   not  because  there  are 


88  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

not  other  good  exercises  but  because  these  are  the  sim- 
plest and  most  effective.  It  has  been  found  that  when 
these  exercises  are  taken  there  is,  by  the  process  of  asso- 
ciation, a  straightening  up  of  the  body.  The  principle  is 
old,  the  application  original  and  the  exercises  new. 

a.    Exercise  I.    The  Air  Push.    (See  illustration,  page  89.) 

Commands : 

(1)    Bending  wrists  backward,  palms  toward  floor,  —  Bend. 

(S)    Press  hard!    Pushdown!    Lift  the  chest!    Stand  tall!    Etc. 

(3)    Holding  the  head  and  chest  up,  —  Wrists  —  Relax. 

Directions: 

The  pupil  stands  erect,  stretches  the  arms  downward  at 
the  side,  pointing  the  fingers  forward,  and  bending  the  hands 
back  at  the  wrists  so  that  the  palms  are  horizontal  to  the 
floor.  "When  this  position  is  assumed  the  exercise  has  only 
begun.  It  is  necessary  to  press  down  as  hard  as  possible 
toward  the  floor,  still  maintaining  the  hands  in  exactly 
the  same  position,  in  the  meantime  lifting  the  chest  and 
head  and  endeavoring  to  straighten  up  as  vigorously  as 
possible.  This  will  raise  the  chest,  lift  the  head,  and 
stretch  the  body  most  effectively.  This  position  should 
be  held  from  five  to  ten  seconds.  The  hands  and  wrists 
are  then  released,  and  the  body  should  remain  erect  aud 
poixcd  li'njli.  \ "nder  no  circumstances  should  it  be  allowed 
to  slum]). 


90  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

When  the  initial  position  is  taken,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  take  a  full  breath  and  to  hold  it  during  the  whole  of 
the  exercise.  At  the  end  of  the  exercise  the  tendency  is 
to  let  the  breath  out  and  to  slump.  The  subject  should 
practice  breathing  in  and  out  in  this  upward-held  position. 

In  giving  this  exercise  to  children  it  is  necessary  to  give 
them  helpful  upward-stretching  commands  when  the  po- 
sition is  held.  These  are  "Stand  tall,"  "Raise  the  chest," 
"Press  down  on  the  hands,"  "Stretch  upward  from  the 
ankles,"  "Stretch  the  knees,"  and  the  like.  These  "Ele- 
vation Cues"  are  important  to  the  success  of  the  pro- 
cedure. 

6.    Exercise  2.     Side  Lift. 

Commands : 

(1)  Stretching    arms    sideways    height    of    eyes,    palms    up,  — 

Stretch ! 

(2)  (Elevation  cues)     Lift!     Press  up!    Stretch  up!    Stand  tall! 

Etc. 

(3)  Keeping  head  and  chest  up,  —  Arms  —  Down. 

Directions: 

Raise  the  arms  to  the  side,  palms  turned  up  at  the  level 
of  the  eyes  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  first  static  exercise. 
This  position  should  be  taken  with  the  hands  flattened  and 
pressed  up.  and  the  arms  lifted,  but  never  really  rising 
above  the  level  of  the  eves.  At  the  same  time  try  to 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE     91 

stand  as  tall  as  possible,  lifting  the  chest  and  stretching 
upward  from  the  ankles  and  knees. 

c.  ExerciseS.   The  Elbow  Lift.   (See  illustration,  page  89.) 
Commands: 

(1)  Bending  arms  at  shoulder  level,  —  Bend. 

(2)  Elevation  cues. 

(3)  Keeping  head  and  chest  up,  —  Arms  —  Down. 

Directions: 

Bend  arms  forward  at  shoulder  level.  Palms  should  be 
perfectly  flat  and  hands  free  from  the  chest.  The  same 
endeavor  as  before  should  be  made  to  lift  the  hands  as 
high  as  possible,  and  this  will  lift  the  chest  and  straighten 
the  body. 

d.  Exercise  4.    The  Wrist  Lift.   (See  illustration,  page  89.) 
Commands : 

(1)  Finger  tips  on  shoulder,  wrist  high,  elbow  up,  —  Place. 

(2)  (Elevation  cues)     Raise  the  chest!     Lift  the  head!    Stretch 

up!    Waist  flat!    Lift  up  the  waist!    Etc. 

(3)  Keeping  head  and  chest  up,  —  Arms  —  Down. 

Directions: 

Finger  tips  should  be  on  shoulders,  wrists  high,  elbows  at 
the  side.  In  this  position  an  effort  should  be  made  to  lift 
the  wrist  as  high  as  possible  without  permitting  the  finger 
tips  to  leave  the  shoulder.  The  same  results  are  obtained 
by  lifting  the  head  and  chest  and  straightening  the  body. 


92  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

These  static  exercises  should  be  used  at  the  beginning  of 
every  physical  training  lesson  and  in  the  relief  exercises 
taken  between  class  periods.  Emphasis  should  be  placed 
on  the  elevation  cues  while  the  uplifted  position  is  being 
held.  They  not  only  lift  the  head  and  chest  but  they 
actually  lift  the  abdominal  viscera  and  relieve  blood  ptosis 
as  well. 

6.  Sustentacular  Exercises.  -  -  The  second  class  of  good 
posture  exercises  are  those  which  strengthen  the  muscles 
that  hold  up  the  head,  chest,  and  various  body  parts 
against  gravity.  They  are  called  Sustentacular  Exercises. 
In  order  that  one  may  have  good  posture,  the  sustentacu- 
lar  muscles  must  be  constantly  exercised  and  strongly  de- 
veloped. 

The  neck  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  most  neg- 
lected regions  of  the  body.  The  cervical  spine  holds  up 
the  head.  It  surrounds  and  protects  the  spinal  cord, 
which  in  this  locality  controls  the  great  body  processes  of 
circulation,  respiration,  heat  production,  and  to  a  great 
degree,  digestion  and  nutrition.  ^  et  these  bones  are  fre- 
quently badly  adjusted  to  each  other,  and  frequently  the 
spinal  column  of  the  neck  sags  forward  and  downward. 

The  "debutante  slouch"  is  characteristically  weak- 
necked,  quite  typical  of  the  young  girl  graduate  who  has 
had  no  physical  exercise,  no  vigorous  games,  and  has  re- 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE     93 

ceived  all  of  her  instruction  in  health  from  the  pages  of  a 
book  on  anatomy  and  physiology  instead  of  from  the 
pages  of  daily  life. 

In  the  neck  are  the  four  great  arteries  which  bring 
blood  to  the  brain  and  the  big  jugular  veins  through 
which  it  is  returned  from  the  head.  The  thyroid  gland  is 
saddled  across  the  front  of  the  neck,  and  this  has  an  ex- 
ceedingly important  function  in  maintaining  the  nutrition 
of  the  body.  Tucked  away  on  either  side  of  the  throat,  in 
a  fold  between  the  larynx  and  the  lateral  neck  muscles, 
are  three  sympathetic  ganglia  which  constitute  in  effect 
the  executive  managers  of  the  circulation  and  respiration. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  neck  is  an  important  segment 
of  the  human  body.  Necks  are  as  characteristic  as  faces, 
and  they  tell  the  story  of  weakness,  power,  vitality,  ill- 
ness, past  and  present,  and  even  prophesy  illness  to 
come. 

That  neck  which  has  fine,  strong  muscular  pillars  on 
either  side  running  from  the  ears  down  to  the  junction  of 
the  clavicle  and  sternum,  and  heavy  posterior  masses  of 
powerful  muscle  running  from  the  occiput  back  to  the 
spine  and  scapula -- that  neck  is,  indeed,  likely  to  be 
surmounted  with  a  head  worth  while  in  this  generation  of 
high  deeds  and  great  events. 

Few  people  realize  what  tremendous  value  there  is  in  a 


94  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

well-muscled  neck.  It  holds  the  head  high.  Thus  the  cir- 
culation of  the  neck  itself  is  improved  in  all  its  various 
important  parts,  the  spine,  the  cervical  central  nervous 
system,  the  sympathetic  ganglia,  and  even  the  larynx  and 
the  esophagus. 

The  high-held  head  puts  these  various  parts  in  their 
proper  position.  The  low-drooped  head  falls  in  upon  it- 
self and  allows  each  part  to  discommode  itself  and  its 
neighbor. 

The  exercise  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck  not  only  im- 
proves the  power  and  tone  of  the  circulation  but  it  also 
mechanically  massages  the  throat  and  related  parts. 

(i.   Exercise  1.    Neck  Massage. 

Commands: 

(1)  Press  the  chin  down  on  the  chest  as  low  and  as  hard  as  pos- 

sible, raising  the  chest  to  meet  it. 

(2)  Scrape  the  chin  along  the  neck  as  closely  as  possible,  mak- 

ing as  many  double  chins  as  you  can. 

(3)  Raise  the  head,  look  upward,  and  press  far  back. 

(4)  Hold  this  position,  emphasizing  it  as  vigorously  as  possible. 

The  pupil  should  try  to  look  at  the  back  of  his  head. 

Directions: 

In  doing  this  exercise  it  is  important  at  first  not  to  press 
too  hard  with  the  chin  nor  to  strain  too  hard  in  going 
backward,  lest  the  untrained  and  amrmic  muscles  be  over- 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE     95 

worked  and  made  sore.  This  dampens  ardor  and  dimin- 
ishes determination.  Begin  with  five  times,  quietly  and 
easily.  Increase  one  or  two  a  day  to  ten  times. 

The  four  counts  should  take  four  full  seconds.  This 
means  that  it  should  be  done  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  times 
in  a  minute.  Under  no  circumstances  should  it  be  done 
any  quicker,  but  when  one  becomes  accustomed  to  the 
exercises,  it  should  take  at  least  six  seconds.  It  is  harder, 
but  more  effective,  when  done  slowly.  There  should  be  an 
interval  of  three  to  six  seconds  between  each  repetition. 

The  name  of  this  exercise,  "neck  massage,"  is  very  well 
justified;  for  there  is  an  alternation  of  the  strongest  possi- 
ble compression  and  stretching  of  the  whole  of  the  neck 
within  physiological  limits,  and  if  this  exercise  did  not 
have  the  additional  effect  of  strengthening  the  posterior 
muscle  masses,  it  would  be  sufficiently  useful  for  the  mas- 
sage effects  alone. 

In  addition  to  the  massage,  it  produces  an  important 
effect  on  the  back  muscles  of  the  neck  which  keep  the  head 
erect  and  high.  When  the  muscles  relax,  the  head  will  fall 
forward,  because  the  greater  part  of  the  weight  of  the  head 
is  in  front  of  the  spine  upon  which  it  rests.  These  muscles 
are  in  constant  contraction  when  the  head  is  held  up. 
They  relax  when  one  gets  sleepy  and  begins  to  nod.  The 
nodding  is  merely  due  to  the  temporary  relaxation  of  these 


96  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

muscles,   which   are   brought   back   to   contraction   again 
when  we  awake  with  a  start. 

This  exercise  is  unusual  in  more  than  one  respect.  One 
of  its  peculiarities  is  that  the  fourth  count  does  not  change 
the  position  but  merely  emphasizes  the  position  taken  on 
the  third  count.  This  is  for  the  specific  purpose  of  short- 
ening the  neck  muscles  and  illustrates  the  application  of 
an  important  physiological  principle  frequently  used  in 
physical  training,  as  follows:  A  muscle  tettds  to  assume  flic 
position  it  occupies  during  its  irork.  The  operation  of  this 
principle  may  be  seen  in  the  resting  position  of  the  fingers 
of  the  farm  hand  or  coal  heaver  who  habitually  uses  a 
shovel,  a  pick,  or  some  implement  which  must  be  grasped 
and  held  tightly.  This  work  requires  the  muscles  of  the 
forearm  to  be  kept  continually  shortened,  with  the  result 
that  during  rest,  when  the  hand  is  no  longer  at  work,  the 
hand  still  maintains  the  position  in  which  it  worked,  and 
remains  half  closed.  This  is  why  we  emphasize  the  hard 
overcontraction  of  the  posterior  muscles  of  the  neck, 
being  confidently  assured  that  if  we  practice  it  often 
enough,  they  will  surely  tend  to  remain  shortened  and  the 
result  we  desire  will  be  obtained:  just  as  the  fingers  of  the 
farm  laborer  are  kept  bent  after  their  hard  work,  so  the 
head  will  be  held  up.  This  principle  is  just  beginning  to 
be  recognized  as  an  integral  part  of  physical  training  and 


CORRECTIVE   WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE  97 

is  essential  in  procedures  involving  the  change  of  posture 
relation  or  position  of  parts  of  the  body.  It  is  illustrated 
in  the  following  exercise. 

6.   Exercise  2.    Restricted  Rotation. 

Position: 

Raise  the  arms  in  a  "half  forward  bend  position"  with  the 
wrists  rigidly  straight,  the  hands  flattened,  palms  toward  the 
face,  thumb  alongside  of  index  finger,  the  pads  of  the  index  and 
middle  fingers  resting  lightly  upon  the  chin.  The  shoulders, 
arms,  forearms,  and  hands  are  straightened  upward  and  back- 
ward. This  position  in  itself  straightens  the  spine  and  lifts  the 
chest  and  constitutes  an  excellent  static  exercise. 

Commands: 

(1)  Head  turning  to  the  right.     The  head  is  turned  squarely  to 

the   right    as   far   as   possible,    tilted   slightly,    but    very 
slightly,  backward. 

(2)  Return  to  position. 

Directions: 

This  exercise  should  be  done  both  right  and  left,  six  to 
twenty  times.  In  this  exercise  it  should  be  noted  that  the 
hands  are  held  in  the  position  first  shown.  It  should  be 
noted  that  the  head  turns  away  from  the  hand  and  is 
held  well  back  of  it.  This  is  important,  for  the  head 
should  be  held  back  both  in  position  (1)  and  in  position 
(2).  This  is  again  putting  into  operation  the  principle 


98  THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

given  in  the  discussion  of  the  first  exercise.  One  can  see 
why  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  posterior  muscles  con- 
tracted and  the  head  held  well  back.  It  is  evident  that 
keeping  the  head  well  back  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  shortened  while  they  are  working, 
thus  putting  into  operation  the  principle  indicated  in 
Exercise  1. 

c.    Exercise  3.     Shoulder  Tap. 

Position: 

Chin  resting  on  right  shoulder.  (Caution:  Do  not  lift  the 
right  shoulder  to  the  chin,  but  use  every  effort  to  place  the  chin 
down  and  far  back.  Do  not  permit  the  shoulder  to  come  for- 
ward.) 

Commands: 

(1)  The  head  is  thrown  back  and  toward  the  other  shoulder  in 

an   endeavor   to   place  the   back  of  the   head   upon  that 
shoulder. 

(2)  Return  to  position.     The  exercise  continues  in  an  alternate 

endeavor  to  press  the  chin  on  one  shoulder  and  the  back 
of  the  head  upon  the  other  shoulder. 

Directions: 

This  should  be  done  slowly  from  ten  to  twelve  times  on 
each  side.  This  exercise  keeps  the  posture  muscles  of  the 
neck  in  a  contracted  or  semi-contracted  state. 


99 

The  posterior  triangle  of  the  neck  extends  from  the  ear 
along  the  line  of  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle  to  the 
top  of  the  sternum  and  is  very  prominently  shown.  The 
base  of  the  triangle  extends  from  the  insertion  of  the  mus- 
cle of  the  sternum  along  the  clavicle  to  the  point  of  the 
shoulder.  The  other  side  of  the  triangle  extends  in  a  line 
not  quite  straight  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  upward 
to  the  rear.  This  triangle  is  first  stretched  wide  open 
and  then  contracted  and  squeezed  as  much  as  possible. 

The  results  of  these  exercises  are  as  follows:  Good  pos- 
ture of  the  head,  good  posture  of  the  chest  and  back, 
stronger  muscles  of  the  neck,  improved  circulation  in  the 
important  structures  of  the  cervical  regions,  and  a  gen- 
eral improvement  in  the  whole  body  metabolism. 

7.  Abdominal  Exercises.  --  Good  posture  is  a  three- 
storied  affair.  It  concerns  the  head,  the  chest,  and  the 
abdomen.  We  have  noted  the  methods  of  raising  the 
chest  by  simple  static  exercises  and  the  great  importance 
of  the  tone  and  development  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck 
in  holding  the  head  high  and  raising  the  chest.  The  ab- 
dominal features  of  both  good  and  bad  posture  are  per- 
haps the  most  important  of  all. 

The  normal  attitude  of  pre-Adamitic  man  was  on  all- 
fours.  This  placed  the  spine  and  ribs  above  the  abdom- 
inal contents,  which  were  suspended  from  them  by  strong 


100         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

ligaments,  with  the  kidneys  snugly  attached  behind  the 
peritoneum,  the  intestines  hanging  like  a  bunch  of  grapes 
from  the  mesentery,  and  the  liver,  stomach,  spleen,  all 
with  appropriate  sustentacular  ligaments.  Man,  on  rising 
from  this  horizontal  position,  found  his  abdominal  con- 
tents attached  to  the  rear  wall  of  the  abdominal  cavity, 
instead  of  hanging  from  above. 

The  liver  soon  obtained  an  attachment  to  the  dia- 
phragm, from  which  it  now  hangs  suspended  as  it  did 
previously  from  the  posterior  abdominal  wall.  The  other 
organs  still  retain  their  posterior  attachments.  This  con- 
stitutes an  hereditary  disharmony,  which  is  constantly  caus- 
ing trouble.  The  kidneys  are  prone  to  leave  their  moor- 
ings and  slide  down  the  back,  sometimes  behind  their 
peritoneal  coverings  and  sometimes  pushing  the  perito- 
neum in  a  pouch  before  them.  The  small  intestines  hang 
down  from  their  attachments  and  occupy  as  low  a  space 
as  possible  in  the  abdomen,  flowing  down  into  the  pelvis, 
their  weight  pressing  upon  the  pelvic  contents,  i.e.,  rec- 
tum, bladder,  and  generative  organs,  the  lower  layers  of 
this  mass  of  intestines  being  pressed  upon  by  the  weight 
of  the  upper. 

This  is  bad  for  the  pelvic  organs,  for  they  become 
crowded,  congested,  and  generally  discommoded  in  action. 
It  is  bad  also  for  the  intestines  themselves.  This  condition 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE         101 

results  in  the  exertion  of  constant  pressure  upon  the  abdom- 
inal wall  from  within  outward.  In  the  erect  position, 
this  outward  pressure  is  greatest  at  the  lower  levels  of  the 
abdominal  wall  and  decreases  gradually  as  we  go  upward 
until  the  ribs  are  reached,  where  the  dragging  effect  of  the 
abdominal  contents  begins  to  pull  the  abdominal  wall  in, 
instead  of  pushing  it  out.  Hence,  when  the  abdomen  is 
weak,  it  assumes  the  shape  of  the  ancient  leather  water 
bottles  which  when  filled  were  bulging  and  round  at  the 
bottom,  but  sloped  to  a  thin  neck  above.  Not  only  is  the 
upper  part  of  the  abdomen  drawn  in,  but  the  chest  itself 
is  dragged  down  and  sinks  inward.  The  weighty  liver 
pulls  down  the  diaphragm,  which  in  turn  pulls  downward 
and  inward  the  lower  ribs  to  which  they  are  attached, 
which  in  turn  pull  down  the  upper  chest,  and  the  bottle- 
shaped  appearance  extends  from  pubis  to  neck. 

This  is  the  picture  so  frequently  presented  by  the  chronic 
invalid,  the  man  in  bad  posture,  the  man  who  has  "never 
taken  exercise."  This  is  the  effect  of  gravity,  that  con- 
stant force  which  ever  drags  us  down  toward  the  earth. 
It  is  a  picture  of  gravity  victorious  over  the  strength  and 
vitality  of  a  man,  the  picture  of  a  man  defeated  by  the 
forces  of  Nature.  He  is  still  erect,  still  possessed  of  a 
certain  amount  of  vigor  and  muscular  strength,  but  Na- 
ture is  dragging  him  down  piecemeal  and  has  proceeded 


102         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

a  long  way  toward  the  winning  of  the  ever-waging  tug- 
of-war,  which  finally  and  inevitably  she  must  win,  for 
gravity  brings  us  all  at  last  to  rest. 

The  strong  abdomen  is  a  flat  abdomen;  therefore,  it 
should  be  made  flat  and  kept  flat.  All  that  is  necessary 
in  the  normal  individual  is  merely  an  effort  of  the  will, 
calling  upon  the  abdominal  muscles  to  contract.  As  a 
rule,  however,  men  are  not  normal,  and  the  abdominal 
muscles  are  incompletely  under  the  control  of  the  will, 
and  in  many  cases  are  half  paralyzed.  For  ninety-nine 
per  cent,  it  is  necessary  to  reeducate  the  individual  as  well 
as  to  strengthen  these  muscles. 

a.  E.irrriw  1.    Abdominal  Contraction  and  Relaxation. 
Position: 

Leaning   forward    with    the   hands   on   the   knees,    which    are 
slightly  bent. 

Commands: 

(1)  Contract  the  abdomen,  pulling  it  in  and  up  as  far  as  possible. 
(-2)  Relax  the  abdomen,  allowing  it  to  fall  down  under  the  pres- 
sure of  the  abdominal  contents. 

Rate:     One  count  to  the  second:    two  seconds  to  the  exercise. 

Repetition:    Ten  to  thirty  times. 

b.  E.i'crcixe  ^1.     Abdominal  Contraction  with  Breathing. 
Position: 

The  same  a<  in  Exercise  1. 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE         103 

Commands: 

(1)  Abdominal  contraction,  the  same  as  in  Exercise  1. 

(2)  Breathe  in  (abdomen  contracted). 

(3)  Breathe  out  (abdomen  remains  contracted). 

(4)  Breathe  in  (abdomen  remains  contracted). 

(5)  Breathe  out  (abdomen  remains  contracted). 

(6)  Breathe  in  (abdomen  remains  contracted). 

(7)  Breathe  out  (abdomen  remains  contracted). 

(8)  Breathe   in    (abdomen   remains   contracted.      Keep   it   con- 

tracted.) 

Rate:    Two  seconds  to  each  count;   sixteen  seconds  to  the  ex- 
ercise. 

Repetition :    Six  to  twelve  times. 

These  are  probably  the  best  of  all  abdominal  exercises 
and  are  the  result  of  many  years  of  patient  research  and 
experience.  The  first  exercise  gives  a  training  in  the  vol- 
untary control  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  improving  their 
circulation  and  strengthening  them.  It  forces  the  abdom- 
inal contents  up  into  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen,  de- 
creases the  circumference  of  the  lower  segment,  and  in- 
creases the  circumference  of  the  upper  segment.  In  a 
well-trained  athlete,  this  is  readily  seen.  The  tape  meas- 
ure tells  the  significant  tale  of  three  and  three-quarter 
inches  difference,  and  this  is  the  index  of  the  uplifting  im- 
pulse that  has  been  given  to  the  abdominal  viscera.  Chest 


104         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

expansion  is  important,  but  abdominal  contraction  is  a  far 
more  significant  measure  of  vital  power. 

The  relaxation  of  the  abdominal  walls  permits  the  vis- 
cera to  fall  again,  the  alternating  contraction  and  relaxa- 
tion causing  a  churning  kind  of  massage  which  stimulates 
the  living  tissues  which  form  the  abdominal  contents, 
and  heightens  their  activity.  The  muscular  structure  of 
the  bowels  becomes  less  lazy  and  more  active,  the  glandu- 
lar lining  of  the  intestines,  the  actuating  nervous  ganglia, 
the  arteries,  veins,  and  lymphatics  all  receive  their  appro- 
priate mechanical  stimulation,  all  of  which  is  conducive  to 
health. 

If  the  diet  is  even  approximately  near  the  biological 
normal,  and  the  condition  has  not  lasted  so  long  that  the 
intestinal  muscles  themselves  have  become  semi-paralyzed 
or  spastic,  exercises  of  this  type  will  completely  relieve  in- 
testinal stasis.  The  improvement  which  this  makes  in  the 
taut  and  strengthened  abdominal  wall  gives  it  sufficient 
power  to  support  the  abdominal  contents.  Such  power  is 
tested,  practiced,  and  improved  by  Exercise  2.  This  ex- 
ercise (breathing  with  a  contracted  abdomen)  stimulates 
the  normal  tonic  condition  of  good  posture.  The  abdo- 
men is  first  contracted  and  held  taut  while  the  breath  is 
taken  in  and  allowed  to  go  out  of  the  lungs.  This  is  the 
state  of  att'airs  which  should  obtain  at  all  times  during  the 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE         105 

day,  when  a  man  sits  or  stands  erect,  and,  particularly, 
when  he  is  standing  still. 

In  the  first  exercise,  the  lower  and  inner  wall  of  the  ab- 
domen was  acted  upon.  In  the  second  exercise,  it  is  held 
normally  contracted  while  it  is  put  under  a  rhythmical 
strain  by  the  movements  of  the  chest  above.  It  remains 
in  static  contraction,  which  is  exactly  the  position  in 
which  it  must  remain  during  daily  life. 

These  exercises  may  be  used  where  school  conditions 
warrant. 

c.  Other  varieties  of  abdominal  work  may  be  given  as 
follows : 

Hanging  from  horizontal  bar  — -  Knee  and  leg  raising. 
Lying  on  hack  —  Knee  and  leg  raising.     Sitting  up.     Touch- 
ing toes  to  floor  behind  head.    Abdominal  rotation. 

Standing  —  Knee  and   leg  raising.     Trunk  bending.     Trunk 
twisting. 

Sitting  —  Abdominal  rotation.    Leg  raising. 
Prone  falling  —  Thigh  flexion. 

IV.    INDIRECT    WORK    FOR    GOOD    POSTURE 

1.  Importance  of  the  Mental  Attitude.  —  Mental  states 
express  themselves  in  correlative  body  positions.  Ele- 
vated mental  attitude  brought  about  by  consistent  hap- 
piness and  persistent  hopefulness  is  one  of  the  strongest 
influences  toward  good  posture. 


106 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  transfer 
from  physical  to  mental  significance  of  words  denoting 
mental  attitude  in  terms  of  the  physical  expression  of  these 
attitudes.  The  things  which  are  high,  are  good;  as,  for 
example,  "uplifted,"  "high-spirited";  and  the  things 
which  are  low,  are  bad,  as,  "depressed,"  "dejected," 
"downcast."  "Straight"  and  "crooked"  are  similar  in- 
stances of  transferred  significance. 

It  is  the  teacher's  privilege  by  force  of  example  and  by 
precept  to  cultivate  high  mental  qualities  in  his  pupils. 
If  the  pupils  are  confident,  they  will  have  a  bodily  expres- 
sion of  confidence;  if  they  feel  uplifted  and  inspired,  their 
bodies  are  uplifted.  These  mental  states,  to  a  great  de- 
gree, are  under  their  control,  and  it  is  their  duty  to  them- 
selves and  to  others  to  try  to  be  happy.  To  have  a  worthy 
pride  in  oneself  shows  in  one's  posture;  and  to  be  ashamed 
of  oneself  likewise  shows  itself  in  a  hangdog  bearing. 

The  teacher  will  find  that  the  military  ideal  as  the  ex- 
pression of  manliness,  virility,  and  personal  power  ap- 
peals to  boys,  whereas  pride  in  womanliness,  personal  at- 
tractiveness, and  "style"  appeals  to  girls.  Pride  and  re- 
spect for  oneself  are  the  strongest  motives  in  work  for 
good  posture. 

2.  Instruction  in  Hygiene.  —  Careful  attention  to  the 
laws  of  health  leading  to  the  conservation  and  develop- 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE         107 

ment  of  tone  and  vitality  is  of  paramount  importance, 
and  no  mere  system  of  corrective  exercises  will  ever  avail 
without  it.  The  necessity  for  ample  rest  and  sleep,  for 
fresh  air  day  and  night,  for  good  food  well  masticated,  for 
bodily  cleanliness,  for  exercise  and  recreation,  should  be 
impressed  upon  the  pupils,  and  the  connection  between 
these  essentials  of  hygienic  living  and  the  preservation  of 
health  and  good  posture  should  be  clearly  shown. 

It  is  wise  to  give  the  pupils  a  good  daily  hygienic  rou- 
tine and  require  them  to  follow  it.  Schedules  of  the  hy- 
gienic duties  of  the  day  may  be  made  out  by  the  pupils 
and  taken  home  for  constant  reference.  Individual  re- 
ports may  be  kept  by  each  child  on  the  execution  at  home 
of  the  main  points  of  the  schedule  and  may  be  brought  to 
school  with  or  without  the  parent's  signature.  Daily  in- 
spection in  the  classroom  is  a  powerful  force  toward  clean- 
liness and  offers  a  concrete,  definite  method  of  giving  in- 
struction in  hygiene.  These  methods  affect  daily  life  and 
result  in  good  health  habits.  Mere  instruction  alone  is 
futile.  (See  Appendix  II.) 

3.  Relation  of  Digestion  to  Posture.  —  Since  tone  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  nutrition  of  the  muscles  and  ner- 
vous system,  digestion  directly  influences  posture.  Acute 
trouble  with  the  digestive  tract  causes  pain  which  affects 
the  nervous  system  directly,  causing  temporary  poor  pos- 


108         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

ture,  and  chronic  trouble  makes  for  permanently  bad  pos- 
ture. Indigestion  is  usually  attended  by  constipation  and 
absorption  of  poisonous  putrefactive  products  into  the 
blood,  causing  diminished  nutrition,  autointoxication, 
headaches,  and  chronic  physical  depravity.  Investiga- 
tions in  the  relation  of  food  to  posture  prove  that  pupils 
who  have  adequate  and  proper  food  are  habitually  in  bet- 
ter posture  than  those  who  have  inadequate  or  insufficient 
food.  Pupils  should  be  taught  the  value  of  vegetables, 
fruits,  "roughage,"  and  sufficient  water  in  promoting  di- 
gestion and  preventing  constipation. 

4.  Relation  of  Bathing  to  Posture.  —  Care  of  the  skin 
has  its  effect  upon  posture.    There  are  two  kinds  of  bath- 
ing,  one   for   cleanliness   and   one   for   tonic   effect.     For 
cleanliness,  two  hot  baths  a  week,  with  soap  and  brush, 
are  usually  sufficient;    but  the  cool  or  cold  bath  or  shower 
is  of  tonic  value  and  should  be  taken  daily. 

5.  Relation    of    Teeth    to    Posture.  -    The    toothbrush 
drill  is  a  useful  corrective  exercise.    The  child  should  be 
taught    to    brush    his    teeth    before   breakfast   and   before 
going  to  bed,  and  to  scrub  the  gums  as  well  as  the  teeth. 
An   unclean  mouth  makes   a   foul   breath   and  causes  the 
teeth  to  decay.     Decayed  teeth  hold  germs   which   often 
cause   contagious  diseases,    diseased   tonsils,  and  enlarged 
glands  of  the  neck.     Proper  chewing  is   impossible  when 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE         109 

the  teeth  are   decayed,   and  indigestion  and  loss  of  ap- 
petite follow. 

6.  Hygienic  Exercises.  -  -  Hygienic  exercises   are  large 
rhythmic  movements  of  large  muscle  groups.     They  are 
designed  to  create  a  physiological  state  of  exercise  with  a 
heightened  circulation,   increased  breathing,  and  a  more 
rapid  body  metabolism  followed  by  improvement  in  nu- 
trition and  elimination. 

Exercises  of  this  type,  both  formal  and  informal,  are  of 
great  importance  for  they  produce  organic  and  muscular 
vigor,  the  bodily  expression  of  which  is  good  posture. 

Incidentally  they  also  increase  the  strength  of  the  pos- 
ture muscles  of  the  abdomen,  neck,  and  back.  They  are 
fully  described  in  the  appropriate  chapter. 

7.  Posture  While  Exercising.  —  Since  muscles  tend  to 
assume  the  state  in  which  they  are  exercised,  it  is  espe- 
cially important  that  good  posture  should  be  held  while 
exercising.    The  muscles  of  the  neck,  back,  chest,  and  ab- 
domen  will   therefore   tend   to   maintain    their   shortened 
state  and  to  support  good  posture  after  the  exercise  is 
over. 

For  this  reason  good  posture  is  insisted  upon  at  the 
outset.  The  command  ATTENTION,  the  first  incident  of 
the  lesson,  means  "head  up,"  "chest  high,"  and  that  the 
body  be  straightened  upward  from  the  ground. 


110         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL   TRAINING 

During  the  lesson  every  movement  should  start  and 
finish  in  good  posture. 

Explanations  and  demonstrations  of  new  exercises  should 
always  be  given  while  the  pupils  are  "at  ease,"  at  which 
time  the  elevated  position  should  not  he  emphasized. 
Though  good  posture  is  always  desired,  it  is  proper  to 
permit  some  relaxation  at  these  times,  for  the  muscles 
supporting  good  posture  occasionally  need  rest.  If  a  pu- 
pil slouches  badly  he  should  receive  special  attention  but 
not  at  a  time  when  correction  would  interrupt  the  whole 
class.  Contrary  to  the  usual  opinion,  perfection  of  good 
posture  should  not  be  insisted  upon  at  all  times.  In 
growing  children  it  frequently  cannot  be  obtained  and  it 
should  never  be  mentioned  while  children  are  at  play. 

It  should  be  insisted  upon  during  formal  exercises  and 
at  attention.  It  will  best  be  obtained  as  a  habit  by  judi- 
cious requirements,  consistent  training,  habits  of  exercise, 
and  good  hygiene,  not  by  continual  nagging. 

The  call  to  attention  after  a  period  of  instruction  should 
invariably  and  dramatically  produce  a  perfection  of  good 
posture;  an  alert,  high,  and  vigorous  bearing,  a  sharp 
contrast  to  the  previous  relaxation. 

8.  Selection  of  Exercises:  Emphasis  upon  the  Ex- 
tension Element.  --  A  consistent  effort  should  be  made  to 
have  every  exercise  contain  a  complete  emphasized  con- 


CORRECTIVE   WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE         111 

traction  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  back,  shoulders, 
and  neck.  Informal  exercises,  play  and  athletic  move- 
ments, seldom  contain  these  elements;  and  the  task  of 
strengthening  and  shortening  the  extensors  rests  to  a  large 
extent  with  formal  exercises. 

Hence,  a  movement  such  as  touching  the  toes  and  re- 
turning to  position  is  seldom  used  alone  as  a  two-count 
movement.  A  third  count,  such  as  stretching  arms  up- 
ward is  added  and  emphasized  by  adding  "looking  up- 
ward" before  returning  to  the  starting  position,  making 
the  movement  of  four  counts  instead  of  two  and  produc- 
ing a  strong  complete  extension.  Charging,  trunk  bend- 
ing, trunk  twisting,  and  the  like  should  habitually  be 
made  into  four-count  movements  by  a  similar  addition  of 
an  extension  element. 

9.  Emphasis  in  Command.  -  -  When  a  four-count  move- 
ment  contains   an   extension   element,   the  corresponding 
count  should  be  emphasized. 

10.  Shoulder    Blade    Exercise.  -  -  The   shoulder  blades 
(scapulae)  are  held  upward,  backward,  and  inward  by  the 
rhomboid   muscles  which  run  from  their  borders  to  the 
spine.     They  hold  the  weight  of  the  shoulders.     In  the 
past,  too  much  emphasis  has  been  placed  upon  their  devel- 
opment because  it  was  wrongly  believed  that  the  shoulders 
should    be   held    back.     They    should   receive   consistent 


112         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

attention,  but  not  to  the  prejudice  of  more  important  cor- 
rective work.  It  is  proper  to  include  one  of  the  following 
in  every  lesson: 

Shoulder  circles.    Shoulders  forward,  upward,  backward,  downward. 
Hand  circles.         Arms  stretched  sideways,  palms  up,  hand  circle 

upward.      (Caution:    the   circle   is   above   and 

back  of  the  shoulder.) 
Arm  flinging.         Arms  stretching  forward,  flinging  arms  sideways 

(height  of  eyes)  with  rising  on  toes. 
Elbow  circles.        Hands  on  shoulders.     Elbows  forward,  sideways, 

backward  —  down. 

In  all  of  these  the  posture  of  the  head  must  be  care- 
fully watched.  They  may  be  used  to  rhythmic  commands 
in  the  corrective  part  of  the  lesson. 

11.  Rising  Movements.  —  Any  upward  movement  of  the 
arms  tends  by  association  to  raise  the  chest  and  head. 
This  effect  is  reinforced  if  there  is  associated  with  the 
movement  some  elevated  idea. 

For  example,  raising  the  arms  slowly  forward,  slightly 
sideways  (palms  upward),  and  stretching  them  upward 
and  forward  with  a  feeling  of  expressing  "inspiration/' 
lifts  the  chest,  head,  and  whole  body  upward. 

Raising  the  bended  arms  upward  in  front  of  and  close 
to  the  body  (wrist  leading)  to  a  position  over  the  head 
and  looking  upward,  has  the  same  effect.  Dance  positions 


CORRECTIVE   WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE         113 

indicating  buoyancy,  as  in  the  Scotch  dances  where  the 
hand  is  held  over  the  head  with  the  wrist  high,  have  a 
favorable  influence  upon  the  body  if  they  are  done  in  a 
manner  which  expresses  and  in  turn  reinforces  the  inher- 
ent exuberance  of  the  dance. 

These  movements  are  seldom  used  in  gymnastic  lessons 
of  the  usual  type.  It  is,  however,  important  to  note  the 
principle  involved  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  more 
extended  use  of  it  will  be  made  in  the  future. 

12.  The  Use  of  Motives  and  Incentives.  -  -  The  desire 
for  good  posture  should  be  inculcated.  The  pupils  should 
realize  that  it  is  worth  working  for  and  the  strongest  mo- 
tives toward  consistent  effort  should  be.  aroused. 

Motives  are  either  in  the  pleasure  or  pain  series.  In  the 
former,  the  ideas  of  personal  pride,  gain,  social  approba- 
tion, health,  happiness,  and  efficiency  are  brought  into  re- 
lation to  good  posture.  In  the  latter,  shame,  disgrace, 
ill  health,  unhappiness,  and  loss  of  efficiency  are  shown 
as  consequences  of  bad  posture.  The  teacher  should  habit- 
ually use  the  pleasure  series  and  only  occasionally  use 
the  pain  motives,  for  it  is  far  better  to  base  conduct 
upon  the  anticipation  of  gain  than  upon  the  fear  of 
punishment. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  personal  pride  as  previously 
indicated,  the  commercial  value  of  good  posture  frequently 


114         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

has  a  strong  appeal.  It  is  the  erect  manly  boy  and  the 
well-appearing  girl  that  instinctively  appeal  to  the  em- 
ployer, and  good  posture  helps  to  get  and  keep  good  posi- 
tions. It  has  a  value  in  dollars  and  cents. 

The  health  motive  does  not  make  a  very  strong  appeal 
although  at  times  it  may  be  used  with  effect. 

13.  Tests  and  Marks.  -  -  Testing  and  marking  posture 
bring  clearly  to  the  student's  mind  his  personal  defects 
and  make  evident  to  him  that  good  posture  has  a  value 
in  the  eyes  of  the  school  authorities.     They  also  provide 
an  incentive  for  improvement. 

14.  Triple  Posture  Test.  -  -  This  test  was  first   formu- 
lated by  Miss  Jessie  H.  Bancroft,  Assistant  Director  of 
Physical  Training  in  the  Brooklyn    Schools;    it  has  three 
parts. 

a.  Standing  Test.  While  the  class  is  placed  at  atten- 
tion the  teacher  inspects  each  pupil  from  the  side.  Those 
who  are  unsatisfactory  are  placed  to  one  side.  The 
usual  defects  to  be  noted  are  as  follows:  head  forward, 
shoulders  back  and  hips  forward,  round  shoulders,  flat 
chest,  weight  on  heels,  hollow  back.  The  remainder  are 
given  the  next  test. 

/;.  Marching  Test.  The  class  is  marched  past  the 
teacher  two  or  three  times  and  those  who  do  not  maintain 
good  posture  are  put  to  one  side. 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE         115 

c.  Exercise  Test.  Those  who  pass  the  marching  test 
are  given  simple  exercises.  Those  who  do  not  have  good 
posture  habitually  are  usually  caught  off  their  guard.  The 
"arms  upward  stretching"  position  may  be  included  among 
these  exercises,  but  it  is  a  severe  test  of  the  mobility  of 
the  shoulders  as  well  as  of  good  posture,  and  often  pupils 
or  even  adults  cannot  hold  this  position  with  the  trunk 
straight  and  the  head  erect.  Those  who  pass  all  three 
tests  are  put  in  group  one;  the  others,  in  group  two. 

This  test  should  be  conducted  at  least  once  a  month. 
The  percentage  of  pupils  in  good  posture  should  be  calcu- 
lated and  placed  on  the  blackboard  or  posted.  The  pu- 
pils should  become  interested  in  improving  the  percentage 
month  by  month. 

Class  records  should  be  reported  to  the  principal  and 
a  monthly  chart  for  the  whole  school  made  and  posted. 
The  percentages  may  be  read  at  the  assembly  exercises 
before  the  whole  school  and  a  spirit  of  rivalry  developed. 
Occasionally  there  may  be  good  posture  reviews  and  good 
posture  may  be  noted  when  fire  drills  are  held. 

A  banner  or  trophy  may  be  awarded  to  the  class  having 
the  best  percentage.  In  this  case  it  is  better  to  have  the 
principal  or  the  visiting  physical  training  teacher  verify 
the  percentage  offered  by  the  teachers. 

In  arranging  the  class  for  formal  exercise  it  is  a  good 


116         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

plan  to  place  the  poor  posture  pupils  in  a  group  by  them- 
selves at  one  side  rather  than  in  the  front. 

The  names  of  the  good  posture  pupils  may  be  placed 
on  the  classroom  blackboard  or  on  an  honor  roll  in  the 
gymnasium. 

Occasionally  the  teacher  may  call  upon  the  class  to  make 
its  own  posture  estimates,  placing  a  group  of  pupils  be- 
fore the  class  and  calling  upon  the  remaining  pupils  to 
give  their  estimate  in  terms  of  a  series  of  numbers  from 
one  to  fire  in  which  one  is  the  best.  It  is  surprising  how 
accurate  the  pupils  are  in  their  judgments.  This  method 
arouses  a  great  deal  of  interest. 

Those  who  are  wholly  deficient  in  posture  may  be  formed 
into  a  "slouch  class"  and  given  special  exercises  when  the 
class  breaks  up  into  squads  for  recreation.  This  deprives 
the  delinquents  of  the  pleasure  of  play  and  stimulates  a 
real  desire  to  improve.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
play  has  a  real  value  as  a  postural  exercise  and  the  slouch 
class  must  do  work  which  really  benefits  them.  It  should 
never  be  used  as  a  punishment. 

Pupils  should  never  be  "kept  in"  after  school  merely 
as  a  punishment  for  bad  posture,  although  to  hold  an 
after-school  class  for  poor  posture  cases  is  a  valuable  pro- 
cedure. 

It   is  important  to  enlist  the  cooperation  of  the  home, 


CORRECTIVE   WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE         117 

for  much  can  be  done  in  this  way.  Parents  are  often 
interested  in  good  posture,  for  it  is  one  of  the  most  easily 
observed  results  of  physical  training. 

Records  showing  whether  posture  is  good,  fair,  or  poor, 
should  be  placed  on  the  monthly  report  card  and  special 
home  exercises  should  be  assigned. 

In  making  judgment  on  posture,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  blame  unjustly  those  whose  posture  is  very  bad  or 
those  who  are  suffering  from  a  fixed  spinal  curvature,  for 
these  children  are  frequently  aware  of  their  defects  and 
may  be  very  sensitive.  Such  cases  require  special  and 
sympathetic  care  from  the  teacher  and  should  always  be 
referred  to  the  school  physician. 

V.       THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    POSTURE 

1.  Methods  of  Measurement.  -  -  The  measurement  of 
the  posture  of  children  in  school  should  be  made  as  simple 
as  possible.  It  should  be  based  upon  sound  scientific  prin- 
ciples, but  it  should  be  relieved  from  the  painful  accu- 
racy of  scientific  method.  All  measurements  of  posture, 
whether  scientific  or  merely  practical,  should  be  based 
upon  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  good  posture  is  an 
evidence  of  good  gravity  resistance,  for  bad  posture  is  on 
the  other  hand  a  submission  to  gravity.  If  the  child  is 
standing  as  tall  as  it  is  possible  for  his  physical  frame  to 


118         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

stand,  he  is  in  good  posture.  If  gravity  pulls  him  down 
an  inch  or  two  or  three,  he  is  in  correspondingly  bad  pos- 
ture. 

Bad  posture  may  be  measured,  therefore,  by  decrease  in 
height.  This  may  be  shown  by  actual  measurement  of 
height  or  by  observation  of  the  contour  of  the  body  in 
profile,  as  a  poor  posture  will  show  various  displacements 
forward  and  backward.  If,  for  example,  we  take  a  piece 
of  wire  thirty-six  inches  long  and  lay  it  upon  a  yardstick 
in  a  vertical  position,  it  will,  if  the  wire  is  perfectly 
straight,  measure  just  thirty-six  inches.  Now  let  us  take 
this  wire  and  bend  it  slightly  at  the  middle  and  call  this 
the  position  of  "hips  forward."  Bend  it  also  at  twenty- 
four  inches  from  the  ground  making  an  "increased  dorsal 
curve."  Bend  it  again  further  up  to  correspond  to  the 
"head  forward"  position.  Then  lay  it  alongside  the 
yardstick  and  we  will  see  that  the  wire,  although  it  is 
thirty-six  inches  long,  only  measures  thirty-two  or  thirty- 
three  inches  or  possibly  thirty-one  inches,  depending  upon 
how  much  we  have  bent  it  at  the  various  points  corre- 
sponding to  the  hip,  back,  and  neck.  This,  then,  is  the 
way  to  measure  the  extent  of  bad  posture  of  the  mobile 
type. 

Other  measures  of  posture  may  be  obtained  by  noting 
actual  visceral  ptosis:  i.e.,  the  depression  of  internal  or- 


120         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

gans  below  their  normal  positions.  If  the  abdomen  bulges 
and  the  chest  is  flat,  there  is  bad  posture  and  visceral 
ptosis. 

We  should  be  able  to  arrive  at  an  index  of  comparative 
girths  of  chests  and  abdomens.  In  a  healthy  young  man, 
the  average  chest  girth  should  be  from  25  to  30  per  cent 
greater  than  the  smallest  abdominal  girth;  in  woman  it 
may  be  less.  The  proportions  of  5  to  4  are  probably  nor- 
mal. This  measurement  is  complicated  by  the  amount  of 
abdominal  fat  and  by  other  factors.  Circulatory  ptosis 
can  be  determined  by  the  author's  test  which  is  based 
upon  an  observation  of  the  systolic  pressure  and  heart 
rate  in  the  horizontal  and  vertical  positions. 

In  the  schoolroom,  however,  we  wish  to  measure  pos- 
ture merely  to  stimulate  improvement.  For  this  purpose 
a  chart  showing  successive  photographs  of  the  same  indi- 
vidual in  positions  ranging  from  perfect  posture  to  very 
poor  posture  is  offered.  This  indicates  that  the  same  child 
may,  at  different  times,  have  excellent,  very  good,  fair, 
poor,  or  bad  posture;  that  it  is  possible  for  any  child  to 
have  a  record  of  either  good  or  bad  in  this  regard.  It  is  evi- 
dence on  the  one  hand  that  good  posture  is  not  impossible 
for  any  normal  person  if  effort  and  application  are  used 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  evidence  that  those  who 
have  good  posture  may,  if  they  are  not  careful,  lose  it. 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD  POSTURE         121 

In  this  respect,  an  important  distinction  must  be  made. 
Many  children  can  assume  good  posture  during  a  posture 
test  but  make  no  effort  to  keep  good  posture  at  any  other 
time.  They  may  have  been  given  an  A  mark  and  placed 
in  the  good  posture  division,  but  they  deserve  this  dis- 
tinction far  less  than  the  B  posture  children  who  try  very 
hard  all  the  time. 

I  strongly  recommend  that  tests  for  good  posture  should 
be  continued  in  a  standard  fashion;  i.e.,  while  standing, 
marching,  and  exercising;  but  that,  in  addition,  a  rating 
should  be  given  for  habitual  posture  and  I  suggest  the  fol- 
lowing set  of  instructions  for  the  teacher: 

2.  The  Posture  Rating.  —  a.  The  teacher  should  be 
provided  with  posture  charts  showing,  in  the  five  posture 
positions,  a  child  appropriate  in  size  to  her  grade. 

b.  She  will  conduct  a  test  in  posture  including  stand- 
ing, marching,  and  exercising,  with  one  half  of  the  class 
acting  as  assistant  judges  while  the  other  half  is  being 
tested. 

c.  The  pupils  will  be  graded,  as  a  result  of  this  test, 
with  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E  corresponding  to  the 
pictures  on  the  chart. 

d.  The  teacher  will  observe  the  posture  habit  of  pupils 
in  their  daily  work,  particularly  when  they  are  standing 
for  recitation  of  lessons,  writing  at  the  blackboard,  and 


GOOD  POSTURE 


TEST 

BCD 


A    GOOD-POSTURE    POSTKR    FOR    THE    CLASSROOM 

(Used  in  the  public  schools  of  Michigan) 


123 

marching  to  assembly,  and  she  will  rate  the  pupils  on 
their  habitual  posture  according  to  the  numerals  1  to  5  on 
the  posture  chart. 

It  is  preferable  to  have  one  or  more  posture  monitors 
selected  because  of  their  superiority  in  physical  training 
and  good  posture,  and  it  should  be  his  or  their  duty  to 
record  the  ratings  of  the  fellow  pupils  and  thus  save  the 
teacher  time  and  trouble.  Such  helpers  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  nag  and  browbeat  fellow  pupils  as  monitors  are 
sometimes  prone  to  do. 

The  rating  for  habit  in  posture  should  be  in  numerals 
1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  referring  to  the  values  exhibited  on  the 
chart.  Thus  we  will  have  each  pupil  rated  by  letter  and 
by  number  very  much  as  business  organizations  are  rated 
in  Dun's  financial  report.  A  will  stand  for  the  best  pos- 
ture in  test,  but  the  pupil  in  order  to  get  a  rating  of  Al 
must  habitually  stand  in  good  posture,  for  if  he  slumps  he 
may  get  a  rating  of  A3  or  even  A4  or  Ao.  A  pupil  in  C 
posture  may  be  rated  C4  or  C5  depending  upon  his  pos- 
ture habit.  It  is  theoretically  possible  for  a  pupil  in  C 
posture  to  be  2  or  even  1  on  habit,  because  some  pupils 
during  the  test  have  an  inconquerable  tendency  to  assume 
rigid  over-straightened  posture  which  cannot  be  rated  as 
perfect;  but  when  unconscious  of  observation,  they  sit 
and  stand  perfectly. 


CORRECTIVE  WORK  FOR  GOOD   POSTURE         125 

Pupils  and  teachers  alike  take  quickly  and  easily  to 
these  ratings  for  Al  has  a  well  understood  significance  the 
world  over  and  all  departures  from  it  have  a  common 
meaning. 

VI.       SUMMARY 

Good  posture  is  important  not  as  a  thing  in  itself  but 
as  an  evidence  of  the  sturdy  vitality  of  which  it  is  an  ex- 
pression. Teachers  who  work  for  the  Health,  Happiness, 
and  Efficiency  of  their  pupils  will  lead  them  often  into 
the  bright  sunshine  for  their  exercises,  dances,  and  games. 
They  will  open  the  windows  frequently  and  direct  stretch- 
ing and  static  exercises.  They  will  bring  the  sunshine  of 
happy,  high  idealism  into  the  classroom,  and  they  will 
personally  exemplify  the  beauty  of  wholesomeness.  Not 
everyone  is  given  the  privilege  of  making  deep  and  lasting 
impressions  upon  the  lives  of  so  many  persons  as  is  the 
school  teacher. 


CHAPTER   VII 

EDUCATIONAL  WORK 

1.  Definition  of  Physical  Education.  -  -  Except  for  its 
prime  service  toward  health,  the  greatest  function  of  phys- 
ical training  is  physical  education.,  the  development  of  skill 
in  movement. 

2.  Motor  Skill.  —  Adults   differ  greatly  in  motor  skill. 
Some  are  deft,  accurate,  graceful,  and  confident  in  every 
movement;     others  show  obviously  their  lack  of  motor 
training  in  their  slow,  careful  movements,  their  inability 
to  run,  jump,  climb,   throw,  dance,  swim,   or  engage  in 
any  kind  of  sports  with  success,  and  in  their  inability  to 
learn  anything  new  rapidly.     The  former  are  motor  ex- 
perts and  the  latter  are  motor  dullards. 

In  the  training  of  the  soldier,  the  two  phases  of  phys- 
ical training,  the  hygienic  and  educational,  are  clearly 
shown.  He  is  given  heavy  setting-up  exercises,  vigorous 
games,  and  hikes  to  develop  organic  vigor  and  muscular 
endurance.  On  the  other  hand  he  is  thoroughly  ''discip- 
lined" and  trained  to  do  invariably  the  right  thing  at 
the  right  time  and  in  the  right  wav 

126 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  127 

He  is  taught  to  march  correctly  in  proper  relation  to 
his  fellows  in  the  squad  and  company,  to  handle  his  rifle, 
to  fight  with  a  bayonet,  to  throw  a  grenade,  and  the  like 
in  a  prescribed  manner  and  with  the  perfection  of  accur- 
acy, and  withal  to  be  "smart,"  alert,  and  ready  with  a 
background  of  skill  that  makes  for  adaptability  and  confi- 
dent initiative.  This  is  physical  education. 

The  educational  purpose  of  physical  training  is  to  ren- 
der every  movement  of  daily  life  accurate  in  application 
and  economical  in  energy,  to  be  able  to  meet  any  motor 
emergency,  to  be  accomplished  and  graceful  in  game, 
sport,  and  dance,  and  to  be  rapid  in  learning  any  new 
form  of  work. 

I.       THE    MOTOR    MECHANISM 

1.  The  Body's  Motor  Mechanism.  -    The  motor  mech- 
anism of  the  body  consists  of  the  bones,  ligaments,  and 
muscles   under   the   direction   of   the   motor   and   sensory 
nerves,  spinal  cord,  and  brain. 

2.  The  Bones.  -  -  The  bones  are  merely  the  servants  of 
the  muscles  as  these  in  turn  are  directed  by  the  nervous 
system.     Although  they  are  not  subject  to  education  in 
the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  term,  yet  as  they  grow  they 
are  shaped;    they  harden  into  the  forms  best  fitted  to  sup- 
port the  body  efficiently  and  to  serve  the  purposes  of  ha- 


128         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

bitual  forms  of  movement.  To  a  great  extent,  therefore, 
the  kind  of  exercises  taken  during  youth  determines  the 
details  of  their  structural  form. 

To  a  far  greater  degree  the  general  structure  of  the 
bones  is  a  result  of  the  kinds  of  movements  habitually 
used  by  countless  generations  of  our  ancestors,  and  they 
owe  their  present  shapes  to  the  fact  that  our  forebears 
ran,  jumped,  climbed,  threw,  swam,  and  fought.  There- 
fore in  a  sense,  training  does  produce  a  difference  in  the 
bones. 

3.  The  Ligaments.  -  -  The  ligaments,  discharging  their 
function  of  binding  the  bones  together,  are  subject  to  the 
same  laws  of  individual  and  ancestral  education,  but  are 
more  plastic  and  subject  to  modification. 

4.  The  Muscles.  —  Aside  from  the  fact  that    muscles 
may  be  made  larger,   stronger,   harder,   and  shorter,   by 
exercise,  they  are  not  subject  to  education.     They  have 
no  skill  in  themselves,  but  are  merely  dumb  servants  of 
the  central  nervous  system  guided  by  the  will.     They  con- 
tract quickly  or  slowly,  more  or  less,  as  they  are  directed. 
A  motor  dullard  may  have  a  muscular  equipment  pre- 
cisely similar  to  that  of  a  motor  expert  and  yet  remain  a 
motor  dullard. 

5.  The  Motor  Nerves.  --  Motor  nerves  are  formed  of 
the  axis  cvlinder  branches  of  the  motor  cells  found  in  the 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK 


129 


anterior  horn  of  the  spinal  cord  and  in  various  places  in 
the  biain.  These  axis  cylinders  grow  out  from  the  cells 
and  make  their  way  to  the  muscles  in  all  parts  of  the 
body,  where  they  branch  and  end  in  motor  plates  which 


•Spinal 
Cord 


LONGITUDINAL  SCHEMA  OF  SPINAL  CORD 

(Showing  motor  and  sensory  nerves) 

transmit  the  motor  impulse  and  stimulate  the  contraction 
of  the  muscle.  The  motor  cells  in  the  spinal  cord  and 
in  the  brain  may  receive  their  signal  to  cause  muscular 
contraction  either  from  the  other  parts  of  the  brain  con- 
cerned in  movement  or  from  cells  in  the  spinal  cord  or 
from  other  sensory  cells  attached  to  the  nerves  which 
bring  the  sensory  impulse  to  the  spinal  cord. 


130         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

6.  The  Sensory  Nerves.  -  -  The  fact  that  all  movement 
is  guided  by  some  sensation  received  from  a  sense  organ 
such  as  the  eye  or  ear,  or  from  the  skin,  makes  it  import- 
ant to  consider  the  sensory  nerves  a  part  of  the  motor 
mechanism.     The  sensory  nerves  come  from  the  surface, 
bringing  information.     Some  carry  impressions  of  touch, 
temperature,  pressure,  and  movement;    others  have  the 
special  duties  of  carrying  light,  sound,  taste,  and  smell. 
These  latter,  however,  do  not  go  to  the  spinal  column, 
but  directly   to   the   brain.     The   nature   of  the   sensory 
stimulus  going  in  from  the  surface  determine  the  resultant 
action.    Thus  the  gymnastic  command  must  be  heard  and 
the  demonstration  must  be  seen,  before  the  pupil  can  do 
the  movement. 

7.  Reflex  Action.  —  Some  movements  are  so  common 
and  so  invariably  appropriate  that  they  do  not  need  con- 
sideration, and  therefore  they  are  done  without  the  gui- 
dance of  the  brain.     Such  a  movement  is  called  reflex, 
and  is  the  simplest  form  of  motor  work.     The  familiar 
example  is  the  withdrawing  of  the  hand  from  a  hot  stove. 
\Ye  say  we  take  it  away  before  we  know  it.     This  is  called 
a  spinal  reflex  because  it  is  managed  entirely  by  the  spinal 
cord,  which  receives  the  sensory  impulse  from  the  hand 
through  the  sensory  nerve.     The  motor  cells  in  the  an- 
terior horn  of  the  spinal  cord  are  immediately  stimulated. 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK 


131 


They  send  out  motor  impulses  to  the  appropriate  muscles 
and  the  hand  is  drawn  quickly  away  from  danger.  While 
this  action  seems  to  take  place  almost  at  once;  yet,  in  the 
interval,  the  sensory  impulse  has  traveled  up  to  the  brain 
and  we  realize  that  the  stove  was  hot  and  are  conscious 
of  the  fact  that  the  hand  has  been  withdrawn.  If  any 


•Motor  Cell 


Anterior 


Motor  Root 


Spinal  Nerve 

^^^^» 

Sensory  Root 
Sensory  Cell 


A  CROSS  SECTION  OF  THE  SPINAL  CORD 
(Showing  the  course  of  a  spinal  reflex) 


further  movements  are  necessary,  such  as  binding  up  the 
injured  fingers,  the  brain  takes  charge  of  the  matter  and 
the  necessary  muscular  work  is  consciously  directed.  The 
course  traveled  by  the  spinal  reflex  is  known  as  the  reflex 
arc. 

While  only  one  sensory  impulse  may  come  to  the  spinal 
cord,  many  motor  impulses  may  be  aroused  and  sent  out. 
The  withdrawal  of  the  finger  from  the  stove  requires  the 
contraction  of  the  flexors  of  the  arm  and  shoulder,  and 


132         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

sometimes  those  of  the  trunk  and  of  almost  all  of  the 
body.  This  distribution  of  the  sensory  impulse  to  the 
many  motor  cells  in  different  parts  of  the  spinal  cord,  is 
caused  by  the  stimulation  of  certain  cells  in  the  spinal 
cord  which  have  many  branches  running  to  many  motor 
cells.  There  exist  in  the  spinal  cord  a  multitude  of  mech- 
anisms such  as  these,  all  arranged  so  that  appropriate  re- 
sponse may  be  made  to  a  large  series  of  common,  every- 
day emergencies  to  which  the  reaction  has  become  so  ha- 
bitually correct  that  nature  can  always  accomplish  it 
without  conscious  direction.  Such  movements  are  heredi- 
tary. The  race  has  learned  them  well;  and  the  spinal 
cord  can  be  trusted  to  do  them,  always  in  the  same  way, 
through  unconscious  coordination. 

Thus  nature  has  developed  a  definite  and  complete 
series  of  different  kinds  of  motor  skill  in  every  human 
being,  and  for  thousands  of  years  she  has  been  conducting 
lifelong  courses  in  physical  education. 

8.  The  Cerebellum  and  the  Lower  Automatic  Motor 
Nuclei.  -  -  The  cerebellum  and  the  lower  automatic  motor 
nuclei  of  the  brain  are  composed  of  cells  which  have  many 
branches  leading  down  to  the  cells  of  the  motor  nerves  in 
the  spinal  cord.  The  cerebellum  is  under  the  control  of 
higher  levels  of  the  brain  from  which  the  general  direc- 
tions for  bodily  movements  are  given.  One  of  the  main 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK 


133 


duties  of  the  cerebellum  and  the  large  collections  of  cells 
in  the  motor  nuclei  of  the  brain  is  to  conduct  automatic 
movements.  These  movements,  such  as  walking,  running, 


Ce//s  in  Motor  Area 


Ce//s  in  Sensory  Area 


Cerebrum 


Cerebel/um 

{Coordination 
CentreJ 


Spin  a/  Cord 


Motor  fmpu/ses  J,    IT  Sensory  fmpu/ses 

DlAGHVM    OF    THE    M.U\    SENSORY    AND    MOTOR    P.YTHS    OF    THE    BRAIN 

swimming,  and  even  dancing  and  game  movements,  must 
first  be  learned  with  a  great  deal  of  care  and  conscious  di- 
rection. The  process  of  learning  is  the  process  of  physical 
education.  It  consists  very  largely  in  the  training  of  the 
lower  motor  cells  to  make  the  arms  and  legs  work  to- 


134         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

gether  appropriately  and  gracefully,  by  a  process  of  coor- 
dination. In  learning  to  walk,  for  instance,  many  trials 
are  made  until  the  lower  motor  nuclei  finally  are  trained 
so  that  they  can  continue  the  movement  without  our  con- 
scious thought.  It  then  becomes  automatic. 

Many  of  the  movements  of  the  body,  such  as  throwing, 
jumping,  stooping,  lifting,  etc.  are  apparently  quite  simple, 
but  they  really  involve  the  contraction  of  a  large  number 
of  muscles  of  the  body,  all  working  correctly  and  in  proper 
order.  Practically  all  our  large  gymnastic  and  game 
movements  are  of  this  type.  The  task  of  sending  all  the 
motor  signals  down  the  spinal  cord  to  elicit  the  proper  re- 
sponse from  the  many  muscles  involved,  is  discharged  by 
the  cells  in  the  lower  levels  of  the  brain. 

9.  The  Motor  Area.  -  -  The  higher  levels  of  motor  con- 
trol are  in  the  cerebrum,  which  is  the  upper  part  of  the 
brain,  and  is  most  highly  developed  in  man.  Here  there 
are  millions  of  cells  with  processes  running  down  to  the 
cerebellum  and  lower  motor  nuclei  and  also  straight  down 
to  the  motor  cells  of  the  spinal  cord.  These  higher  cells 
are  found  in  the  motor  area  around  the  fissure  of  Rolando 
which  runs  from  a  point  on  the  brain  just  above  the  ear 
upward  toward  the  top  of  the  head.  They  are  grouped 
in  smaller  areas  corresponding  to  the  face,  arm,  head, 
trunk,  and  leg.  The  stimulation  of  any  one  of  these  cells 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  135 

by  electricity  will  cause  a  corresponding  movement.  When 
we  decide,  for  instance,  to  raise  the  right  knee,  the  special 
cells  in  front  of  the  fissure  of  Rolando  send  impulses  down 
to  the  motor  cells  in  the  spinal  cord  in  the  lumbar  region, 
and  the  knee  is  raised.  At  the  same  time  they  send  mes- 
sages to  the  cerebellum  and  elsewhere  and  the  muscles 
of  the  trunk  and  the  other  leg  are  slightly  contracted  so 
that  the  balance  of  the  body  is  preserved.  The  cells  of 
the  cerebrum  give  general  directions  for  the  movement. 
The  cells  in  the  spinal  cord  distribute  these  instructions 
among  the  muscles  and  at  the  same  time  the  cells  in  the 
cerebrum  and  in  the  other  motor  nuclei  are  sending  addi- 
tional instructions  down  the  spinal  cord  for  other  mus- 
cular contractions  which  must  be  associated  with  the  main 
movement  in  order  that  it  may  be  complete,  accurate,  and 
effective. 

10.  The  Sensory  Area.  -  -  In  giving  an  exercise  to  a  class 
the  teacher  describes  it  and  may  also  give  a  demonstration 
for  the  pupils  to  follow.  The  description  is  heard  and  the 
demonstration  is  seen  in  the  auditory  and  visual  centers  of 
the  brain.  From  these  centers  nerve  fibers  run  to  the 
motor  centers  just  described  and  acquaint  the  cells  with 
the  nature  of  the  movement  desired.  In  addition  there 
is  another  area  known  as  the  kinesthetic  area,  which  re- 
ceives sensations  from  all  parts  of  the  body;  these  ac- 


136         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

quaint  the  brain  with  the  position  of  the  arm,  leg,  or 
trunk,  with  the  amount  of  strain  which  each  part  is  under- 
going, and  with  the  nature  of  the  movement  under  way. 
In  the  exercise  previously  described,  where  the  knee  is 
raised  and  the  body  balanced  on  one  foot,  every  part  of 
the  body  is  sending  sensory  impulses  to  this  kinesthetic 
area  informing  it  of  how  the  balance  is  being  kept.  This 
area  in  turn  conveys  the  information  to  the  motor  area, 
which  is  then  concerned  in  sending  out  messages  in  an 
endeavor  to  keep  the  balance. 

It  can  be  seen,  therefore,  that  nature  has  provided  us 
with  a  vastly  complex  nervous  mechanism,  which  can  ac- 
complish, of  its  own  accord,  many  ordinary  movements 
which  by  training  can  also  become  capable  of  more  effi- 
cient adjustment  and  each  part  of  which  has  a  different 
and  distinct  function.  In  addition  this  mechanism  pro- 
vides a  system  of  unconscious  coordination  of  muscular 
contractions  which  may  perfect  and  complete  any  move- 
ment we  may  desire  to  make. 

The  work  of  physical  education  is  to  make  these  move- 
ments accurate,  skilled,  and  controlled. 

II.    TYPES    OF    MOVEMENT 

1.  Instinctive  Movements.  --  Instinctive  movement  is 
the  result  of  a  natural  inherited  tendency  to  react  in  an 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  137 

appropriate  manner  to  any  common  need  for  action.  We 
instinctively  recoil  when  a  blow  is  aimed  at  us.  In  the 
main  these  actions  are  managed  by  the  lower  motor  cen- 
ters although  they  are  in  varying  degrees  under  conscious 
control.  They  are  inborn,  natural  movements,  and  form 
a  large  part  of  life. 

2.  Habitual    Movements.  -  -  Habitual    movements    are 
those  which  have  been  consciously  learned  and  are  done 
so  often  that  they  become  automatic,  or  relatively  auto- 
matic,   and   are   removed   in   great   part   from   conscious 
direction.     Such  movements  are  involved  in  walking,  dress- 
ing, eating,  and  the  like. 

3.  Natural  vs.  Unnatural  Movements.  —  So  far  as  gym- 
nastics are  concerned,   movements  fall  into  two  classes, 
natural  and  unnatural.     A  natural  movement  is  one  which 
occurs  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  daily  life.     As  a  rule  these 
movements  are  learned  without  formal  training.     Mothers 
naturally  act  as  physical  training  teachers  when  they  teach 
children  how  to  walk,  and  fathers  and  big  brothers  serve 
likewise  when  they  teach  children  how  to  jump,  climb, 
swim,  and  throw.     This  is  an  informal,  almost  instinctive 
method.     These  movements  can  be  regulated  and  improved 
by  physical  training,  and  they  form  the  basis  of  all  kinds 
of  athletics  and  athletic  games.     One  of  the  greatest  fields 
for  the  physical  training  teacher  and  the  teacher  of  ath- 


138         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

letics  is  making  these  movements  more  skilled.  Throw- 
ing, for  example,  is  a  crude  natural  ability  which  may  be 
developed  to  its  highest  degree,  as  in  the  training  of  a 
baseball  pitcher,  who  must  be  able  to  curve  the  ball  over 
the  corner  of  the  plate  just  where  he  wishes  it  to  go. 

Unnatural  movements  are  those  which  are  not  com- 
monly found  in  nature,  and  are  frequently  upward,  or  are 
such  movements  as  those  of  arms  stretching  sideways  or 
arms  circling. 

In  the  main,  natural  movements  use  only  about  the 
middle  third  of  the  possible  arc  of  movement.  That  is  to 
say,  the  arms  are  seldom  stretched  completely  straight  nor 
are  they  bended  to  the  fullest  extent.  The  middle  part 
of  the  arc  is  that  field  where  movements  are  best  controlled 
and  most  powerful,  because  that  section  is  used  most  and 
the  leverage  of  the  muscle  works  to  the  best  advantage 
there.  Unnatural  movements  are  used  in  formal  gym- 
nastics and  provide  an  opportunity  for  complete  exten- 
tion  and  flexion  through  the  distal  and  proximal  ends  of 
the  arc. 

4.  Definite  vs.  Indefinite  Movements.  -  -  Indefinite 
movements  are  as  a  rule  natural,  and  as  such  they  occupy 
the  middle  third  of  the  arc.  They  are  movements  in  which 
exactness  in  the  beginning  and  ending  are  of  little  import- 
ance so  long  as  the  part  moved  traverses  the  desired  course 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  139 

and  the  appropriate  work  is  done.  For  instance,  in  throw- 
ing a  ball,  the  position  of  the  hand  in  the  beginning  of 
the  throw  and  its  position  after  the  ball  has  left  it,  are 
comparatively  immaterial.  The  important  elements  are 
the  speed  and  direction  of  movement  of  the  hand 
holding  the  ball,  and  its  action  just  as  the  ball  is  re- 
leased. 

A  definite  movement,  on  the  contrary,  starts  from  a 
certain  exact  location,  goes  through  a  prescribed  course, 
and  arrives  and  stops  at  an  exact  terminus,  as  for  instance 
in  the  exercise,  "starting  from  the  hips-firm  position, 
stretch  arms  sideways  at  the  height  of  the  eyes." 

III.       CONTROL   AND    COORDINATION 

1.  Objective  vs.  Subjective  Control.  -  -  The  difference 
between  objective  and  subjective  control  depends  not  so 
much  upon  the  character  of  the  movement  as  upon  the 
thought  in  the  mind  of  the  person  exercising.  In  objective 
control  the  mind  is  directed  toward  what  will  happen  as  a 
result  of  the  movement.  For  instance,  in  throwing  a  ball, 
the  thrower  visions  the  ball  arriving  at  a  certain  place;  a 
skilled  skater  in  making  a  "grapevine"  is  thinking  of  the 
diagram  made  by  the  skates  upon  the  ice.  The  ball 
player  does  not  think  of  the  position  of  his  head,  shoul- 
ders, arms,  and  hands;  nor  does  the  skater  consider  the 


140         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

movements  of  the  trunk,  arms,  and  legs.  The  skilled 
jumper  in  running  at  the  bar  thinks  mainly  of  going  over 
it;  he  does  not  pay  attention  to  all  of  the  movements  of 
his  legs  and  the  many  details  of  muscular  contraction 
which  will  be  accomplished  as  he  makes  his  jump. 

Subjective  control,  however,  is  centered  upon  the  mov- 
ing part  of  the  body.  The  mind  is  conscious  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  part  in  motion  and  is  endeavoring  to  control 
the  movement.  This  is  the  characteristic  mental  condi- 
tion in  learning  any  exercise.  It  is  used  especially  in 
gymnastics  when  we  call  for  definite  movements,  and  it  is 
used  in  training  for  superior  skill  in  natural  movements. 
In  learning  how  to  throw  a  curve,  the  pitcher  must  study 
very  carefully  the  movement  of  shoulder,  arm,  wrist,  and 
fingers.  When  the  various  movements  become  habitual 
or  automatic,  his  attention  is  relieved  from  these  details 
and  is  more  concerned  with  the  objective  result  of  his 
effort. 

2.  Coordination  and  Isolation.  --  Coordination  is  the 
working  together  of  the  body  parts.  It  is  usually,  though 
not  necessarily,  unconscious.  Isolation  is  the  contraction  of 
a  muscle  or  set  of  muscles  without  the  contraction  of  other 
muscles  which  are  usually  associated  with  it,  or  the  execu- 
tion of  a  part  of  a  movement  isolated  with  it,  or  the 
execution  of  a  part  of  a  movement  isolated  from  move- 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  141 

ments  ordinarily  accompanying  it.  For  example,  in  open- 
ing or  closing  the  hand,  ordinarily  all  the  fingers  move  in 
unison;  their  movements  are  coordinated  and  they  func- 
tion easily.  If  only  one  finger  is  raised,  however,  an  iso- 
lation, an  unnatural  breaking  up  of  the  coordination  oc- 
curs. It  is  difficult  for  a  person  to  flex  one  finger  when  he 
is  accustomed  to  flex  all  four  simultaneously. 

Ability  to  make  isolated  movements  is  dependent  upon 
muscular  control.  Awkwardness  occurs  when  coordina- 
tions are  not  well  put  together,  or  are  not  appropriate  to 
their  purpose  or  harmonious  in  their  relation  to  each 
other.  In  short  they  are  not  skilled.  Part  of  the  duty  of 
physical  training  is  by  means  of  isolation  to  change  poor 
coordinations  into  good  coordinations  until  the  latter  be- 
come habitual. 

3.  Analytic-Synthetic  Method.  -  -  When  a  new  coordi- 
nation or  a  new  exercise  is  to  be  taught,  it  can  sometimes 
be  done  better  by  one  method  than  by  another.  The 
analytic-synthetic  method  is  usually  preferable.  In  using 
this  method,  the  teacher  considers  the  composition  of  the 
movement;  for  instance,  he  analyzes  the  various  motions 
entering  into  a  natural  movement  such  as  walking,  or  into 
a  comparatively  unnatural  movement  such  as  putting  the 
shot,  and  cuts  them  up,  making  a  separate  exercise  of  each 
motion.  He  teaches  these  separate  parts  under  subjective 


142         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

control,  to  response  commands.  When  by  this  method  of 
isolation  he  has  the  proper  motions  established  in  the 
pupil's  mind,  he  puts  them  together  and  goes  through 
them  as  a  series  of  movements,  in  the  natural  rhythm, 
whereupon  he  achieves  coordination,  leading  to  objective 
control  and  transition  from  voluntary  to  automatic  move- 
ment. In  other  words,  it  is  a  process  of  cutting  up,  of 
analysis;  and  also  of  synthesis,  of  putting  together  again. 
This  method  may  be  used  in  improving  natural  move- 
ments or  in  teaching  unnatural  movements.  It  is  the  sci- 
entific, formal  method  of  teaching  gymnastic  work.  Its 
great  advantage  is  that  it  gives  definiteness,  correct  tech- 
nique, and  perfection  of  form. 

4.  Mimetic-Objective  Method.  --In  the  case  of  coordi- 
nations which  are  not  analyzed,  such  as  walking,  skip- 
ping, and  the  like,  and  which  are  hereditary  or  are  al- 
ready learned,  the  teacher  may  begin  at  once  with  object- 
ive control.  The  coordination  is  left  entirely  to  the  pu- 
pils. This  is  the  mimetic-objective  method;  mimetic,  in 
that  the  pupils  simply  watch  the  teacher  and  then  try  to 
do  it  just  as  he  did;  objective,  because  the  pupil's  atten- 
tion is  centered  mainly  upon  the  movement  to  be  done 
rather  than  upon  the  moving  part  of  the  body.  This  is 
teaching  by  imitation,  teaching  the  thing  as  a  whole  in 
contradistinction  to  teaching  it  in  parts  and  putting  it  to- 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  143 

gether.  It  is  a  natural  method,  under  objective  control, 
and  lends  itself  well  to  the  teaching  of  some  forms  of  free 
and  informal  dancing.  Its  advantage  is  that  it  is  easy  and 
rapid,  but  it  has  limitations  in  that  important  points  are 
often  overlooked,  inaccuracies  creep  in,  and  technique,  a 
"form,"  which  is  dependent  upon  subjective  control,  is 
not  secured.  In  some  cases,  this  destroys  the  whole  re- 
sult, because  grace  is  primarily  dependent  upon  accuracy. 
Where  precision  is  to  be  desired,  the  mimetic-objective 
method  is  less  appropriate;  where  amplitude  of  move- 
ment and  much  exercise  is  the  object,  the  method  is  ex- 
cellent. Thus  it  answers  well  the  purposes  of  folk  dancing 
but  not  so  wTell  those  of  aesthetic  dancing. 

IV.       RESULTS    OF    EDUCATIONAL    WORK 

1.  Results  to  be  Obtained  from  Educational  Work.  - 
The  prime  educational  purpose  of  teaching  muscular  ex- 
ercises is  to  use  them  afterward  in  gymnastics,  games,  or 
in  later  life.  In  addition  physical  education  seeks  to  de- 
velop various  desirable  qualities  characteristic  of  expert 
physical  movements.  These  qualities  are  mental  rather 
than  physical,  though  they  receive  physical  expression. 
They  are  the  results  of  training  the  mind  and  nervous 
system  rather  than  the  muscles.  It  is  essential  that  the 
pupils  should  know  what  results  are  desired  and  should 


144         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

take  an  interest  and  pride  in  obtaining  them.  But  the 
teacher  must  understand  the  mental  and  physical  results 
that  are  to  be  sought. 

2.  Accuracy.  —  Accuracy  is  of  two  kinds,  exactness  of 
position  and  precision  in  time.     Accuracy  of  position  de- 
pends upon  the  accuracy  of  the  movement  by  which  the 
body  arrives  at  the  position  and  the  correctness  of  the  po- 
sition itself.     It  depends  upon  knowledge  of  the  move- 
ment and  of  the  position  not  only  by  means  of  the  ear 
and  eye,  but  also  by  means  of  muscular  sensations.     The 
movement  must  be  made  at  the  right  time,  and,  if  one  of 
a  series,  in  the  proper  sequence.     Formal  exercises  to  re- 
sponse commands  are  designed  primarily  to  get  accuracy 
of  position,  under  subjective  control. 

3.  Aids  in  Getting  Accuracy.  —  Accurate  response  de- 
pends  much   upon  good  presentation   of  the  exercise,   a 
clear  preparatory  command,  and  a  sufficiently  long  pause. 
Simplicity  is  helpful.     The  exercise  should  be  well  within 
the  ability  of  the  pupil  and  but  one  thing  should  be  taught 
at  a  time.     Every  movement  should  be  accurately  accom- 
plished before  another  is  attempted.     The  teacher  should 
correct  faulty  performance  of  individual  pupils  with  the 
least  possible  interruption  to  class  work.     In  addition  to 
the  effort  thus  required  of  the  teacher,  accuracy  is  like- 
wise dependent  upon  the  pupils'  attention,  interest,  and 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  145 

desire  to  cooperate.  They  should  take  pride  in  accurate 
performance  and  continually  endeavor  to  improve. 

4.  Alertness.  —  Alertness  is  a  state  of  mind  and  body 
prepared  for  immediate  action.  In  its  mental  phase,  it  is 
based  upon  attention  or  sensory  receptiveness,  the  mind 
and  senses  open.  In  its  motor  phase,  it  is  the  preadjust- 
ment  of  the  body  for  any  emergency  —  a  tightening  of 
the  muscles,  a  setting  ready  of  all  the  body  parts  that  are 
to  join  in  the  movement.  Alertness  is  shown  in  the  abil- 
ity of  the  pupil  to  react  at  once  to  the  executive  com- 
mand. This  ability  depends  in  part  upon  his  understand- 
ing that  quick  response  is  desired  and  in  part  upon  his  in- 
terested endeavor  to  comply.  If  there  is  any  delay,  he  is 
not  alert,  and  something  is  wrong  with  his  sensory  or 
motor  responsiveness.  He  must  know  exactly  what  to  do 
and  must  have  sufficient  time  to  prepare  himself  to  exe- 
cute the  movement. 

The  stimulus  of  the  teacher's  voice  giving  a  clear  and 
decisive  signal  to  move,  and  his  alert,  interested  manner, 
have  much  to  do  with  inspiring  a  brisk  response.  The  re- 
sult is  shown  in  the  time  of  movement,  and  may  be  meas- 
ured by  unanimity  of  action  on  the  part  of  the  class.  If 
such  a  response  is  not  secured,  the  exercise  should  be  re- 
peated, attention  being  called  to  laggards. 

The  teacher  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  fre- 


146         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

quently  failure  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  is  due  not  to  the 
latter's  want  of  alertness,  but  to  improperly  given  com- 
mands. 

5.  Inhibition.  -  -  Inhibition  is  the  ability  to  withhold 
from  action  until  the  proper  time.  It  is  a  mental  quality 
of  restraint  or  control,  and  is  related  to  advancement  in 
the  biological  scale  and  in  personal  culture. 

In  the  giving  of  response  commands,  inhibition  may  be 
practiced  through  the  use  of  long  and  varied  pauses.  The 
longer  the  pause  the  greater  is  the  inhibition. 

The  pupils  should  not  at  any  time  begin  a  movement 
before  the  executive  part  of  the  command  is  given,  and 
they  should  not  know  when  to  expect  the  signal  to  move. 
To  insure  inhibition  training,  the  pauses  in  the  commands 
should  be  varied.  If  the  pupils  err  in  this  regard,  and 
move  too  soon  they  may  be  recalled  to  position  and  the 
exercise  may  be  started  anew. 

The  principle  of  surprise  may  be  employed  judiciously 
also  in  varying  the  sequence  of  the  counts.  The  tension 
or  strain  of  restraint  may  be  increased  by  the  substitution 
of  such  words  as  "ready!"  "now!"  when  the  pupil  natu- 
rally expects  the  executive  command.  This  method  should 
not  be  practiced  to  excess.  The  voice  may  be  changed 
suddenly,  not  only  by  raising  it  and  speaking  louder,  but 
by  lowering  it  and  decreasing  the  volume. 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  147 

In  the  foregoing  ways  the  teacher  may  guard  against 
rhythmic  effect.  This  is  important,  for  when  the  response 
command  becomes  rhythmic,  inhibition  is  lost. 

6.  Speed.  —  Speed  is  a  desirable  result  of  physical 
training.  It  may  occur  in  the  single  movement  in  re- 
sponse to  the  single  command  or  in  a  series  of  movements 
done  to  counts.  In  response  to  a  single  command  speed 
depends  largely  upon  the  tone  in  which  the  command  is 
given;  if  the  command  is  given  briskly,  the  response  will 
be  rapid,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  command  is  given 
languidly,  the  response  will  be  spiritless  and  slow. 

Speed  in  sequence  depends  upon  the  rapidity  with  which 
successive  commands  are  given,  or,  in  other  words,  upon 
the  length  of  the  pause  between  the  different  commands. 
Xo  definite  rate  of  speed  can  be  laid  down.  The  pace  of 
the  movement  should  be  that  naturally  appropriate  to 
the  purpose  in  hand.  It  should  always  be  brisk;  never 
slow.  As  a  general  guide,  the  military  cadence  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  steps  to  the  minute  will  usually  be 
correct  for  most  exercises,  though  in  some,  especially  those 
involving  a  change  of  base,  this  rate  will  be  entirely  too  fast. 

On  the  part  of  the  pupil,  the  conditions  necessary  to 
speed  are  knowledge  of  the  exercise,  alert  attention  to  the 
command,  appropriate  preadjustment  and  control,  and, 
finally,  energetic  effort. 


148         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

7.  Grace.  --  Grace  in  movement  is  the  sign  of  perfec- 
tion.    It  depends  upon  familiarity  with  the  exercise  and 
upon  the  proficiency  in  coordination  and  isolation.    These 
are   the   results  of  accuracy.    A   movement  to  be  grace- 
ful must  be  true,  exact,  and  appropriate  to  the  occasion. 
The  ease  and  facility  which  are  essential  to  grace  are  con- 
tingent upon  margin  of  power.     Behind  any  performance 
that  is  designed  to  be  graceful  there  must  be  a  reserve  of 
power  not  in  operation.     If  there  is  an  appearance  of  ef- 
fort, the  movement  is  not  graceful.     There  must  be  an 
appearance    of    ease,    of    superabundance    of    power,    of 
muscular  ability  far  in  excess  of  the  immediate  require- 
ment. 

8.  Economy.  —  Economy  of  movement  depends  upon  ac- 
curate adaptation  to  a  particular  need.     It  is  the  result 
of  knowledge  and  practice,  and  is  the  use  of  just  enough 
energy  as  is  required  to  make  a  given  movement.     For 
example,  in  playing  tennis,  some  players  seem  to  move 
very  easily,   they  are  always  in    the  right  place  at  the 
right  time,  without  a  single  false  motion,  whereas  others 
rush  anxiously  to  the  place  where  the  ball  will  probably 
fall,  and  adjust  themselves  several  times,  with  the  waste 
of  a  considerable  amount  of  energy.     These  latter  players 
are   neither   graceful    nor   economical.     The   qualities    of 
grace  and  economy  have  much  the  same  basic  elements. 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  149 

9.  Reflex  Mental  Results.  —  Accuracy,  alertness,  speed, 
inhibition,  grace,  and  economy  aid  reflexly  in  the  devel- 
oping of  the  allied  mental  qualities  of  concentration,  di- 
rectness, and  clearness  of  thought.     To  a  certain  extent, 
one  trained  to  accuracy  and  alertness  in  gymnastics  is  apt 
to  be  similarly  accurate  and  alert  in  mental  operations. 
Failure  to  get  these  results   in    the   gymnastic   training, 
likewise  tends  toward  general  habits  of  inaccuracy. 

10.  Aesthetic  Mental  Training.  --  Bodily  positions  and 
movements  affect  the  mind,  and  per  contra,  mental  states 
have  correlative  physical  positions  or  movements.     Under 
the  Delsarte  system  of  physical  training,  these  two  oper 
ations  were  classified  as  impression,   or  the  arousing   of 
ideas  or  emotions  by  placing  the  body  in  corresponding 
positions,  and  expression,  or  the  reproduction   in  bodily 
movement  of  mental  experience. 

11.  Impression.  -  -  Bodily     positions     and    movements 
make  their  impressions  upon  the  mind.     A  thought  may 
be  introduced  into  the  mind  or  a  given  mental  state  may 
be  induced  by  putting  the  body  into  a  position  naturally 
correlative  with  that  thought  or  emotion.     Thus  the  cor- 
relative of  fear  is  a  crouching  position,  while  the  correla- 
tive of  courage  is  an  erect,  bold  attitude.     There  is  a  whole 
series  of  these  analogous  poses.     In  the  main,  those  posi- 
tions which  are  gained  by  extension,  by  the  contraction 


150         THE   PEDAGOGY   OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

of  the  extensor  muscles,  belong  to  the  pleasure  series  and 
correspond  to  the  good  things  of  the  mind,  while  those 
positions  which  are  flexed  belong  to  the  pain  series  and 
correspond  to  fear,  depression,  and  the  bad  things  of  the 
mind.  In  educational  and  hygienic  work,  as  well  as  in 
dancing,  it  is  wise  to  emphasize  the  extended  positions 
and  avoid  the  flexed  positions. 

12.  Expression.  -  The  want  of  adequate  expression  is 
one  of  the  most  unfortunate  lacks  of  modern  life.  Many 
ideas  and  feelings  that  would  be  of  value  do  not  find  out- 
let because  in  the  means  of  expression  available,  chiefly 
voice  and  movement,  skill  is  wanting.  By  means  of 
gymnastics,  dances,  and  games,  physical  training  teachers 
are  increasing  knowledge  in  the  technique  of  expression 
through  movement.  Allied  with  their"  work  are  schools 
of  dancing,  of  dramatic  art,  of  voice  culture,  and  the  like. 

In  aesthetic  dancing,  every  movement,  every  position, 
is  the  representation  of  some  thought  or  emotion.  It  may 
be  a  mimetic  expression,  the  actual  mimicking  of  the 
movements  of  some  person  or  of  some  movement  iu  na- 
ture, as  in  the  folk  dance  known  as  the  Shoemaker's  Dance 
or  in  the  waving  of  arms  to  signify  the  shaking  of  trees 
in  the  wind.  Likewise  an  idea  or  a  quality  found  in 
nature,  such  as  sunlight,  air,  or  space,  may  be  expressed  in 
motion.  Human  emotions  form  a  field  by  themselves,  and 


EDUCATIONAL  WORK  151 

are  expressed  in  naturally  correlated  movements.  Finally, 
and  entering  less  into  the  direct  realm  of  physical  train- 
ing, is  symbolic  expression,  the  endeavor  to  express  in 
movement  or  attitude  some  abstraction,  to  present  the 
epitome  of  an  idea  by  means  of  positions  or  movements 
which  shall  stand  for  a  series  of  thoughts,  emotions,  or 
qualities. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES 

All  muscular  movements  are  brought  about  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  nervous  system,  and  therefore,  every  exercise 
is,  not  only  muscular  movement,  but  a  more  or  less  com- 
plicated action  of  the  nervous  system  as  well.  In  so  far 
as  the  action  of  the  nervous  system  in  connection  with 
the  muscular  movement  is  increased  in  skill,  the  process 
is  educational.  In  a  sense,  therefore,  all  (except  reflex, 
automatic,  and  instinctive)  movements  are  educational  in 
proportion  to  the  possibility  of  their  being  learned  or  im- 
proved. 

\Vhen  we  desire  to  learn  an  exercise  or  to  improve  an 
exercise  already  learned,  such  an  exercise  is  educational 
and  should  be  taught  as  such. 

AVhen  we  use  exercises  purely  for  the  purpose  of  prac- 
tice and  improvement  in  some  of  the  various  forms  of 
general  motor  skill,  such  as  alertness,  accuracy,  and  inhi- 
bition, such  exercises  also  are  primarily  educational  and 
should  be  so  taught  and  used. 

1.  Definition  of  Educational  Exercises. -- Educational 
exercises  are  those  which  are  used  primarily  to  be  learned 
for  future  use  or  for  the  purpose  of  the  development  of 

152 


EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES  153 

precision,  alertness,  inhibition,  and  other  forms  of  motor 
skill. 

Educational  exercises  are  sufficiently  important  to  be 
attacked  directly,  definitely,  and  whole-heartedly,  with- 
out compromise;  with  a  single-minded  effort  to  obtain  the 
desired  educational  results.  They  are  therefore  placed  in 
a  separate  section  of  the  physical  training  lesson  devoted 
exclusively  to  this  purpose.  This  satisfies  the  principle  of 
concentration  and  permits  the  teacher,  first,  to  select  the 
most  appropriate  exercise  for  the  purpose;  second,  to  use 
the  most  appropriate  method  of  teaching  it;  and  third,  to 
place  all  of  his  attention  upon  the  getting  of  the  desired 
educational  results. 

2.  Kinds  of  Educational  Exercises.  --In  the  main  edu- 
cational exercises  are  of  two  general  kinds: 

(1)  Exercises  to  be  learned  for  future  use  in  physical 
training  or  in  the  affairs  of  life. 

(2)  Exercises  used  for  the  development  of  general  motor 
skill. 

The  common  practice  of  teaching  a  corrective,  hygienic, 
or  recreative  exercise  and  then  immediately  using  it  for 
its  corrective,  hygienic,  or  recreative  purpose  is  admissi- 
ble if  there  is  a  clear  distinction  made  between  the  teach- 
ing and  the  use.  It  is,  however,  generally  better  to  group 
together  exercises  of  a  like  kind. 


154         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

I.       LEARNING    EXERCISES    FOR    FUTURE    USE 

AYhile  some  educational  gymnastic  exercises  are  of  value 
only  for  the  training  that  results  from  their  use,  other 
movements  are  learned  so  thai  they  may  subsequently  be 
of  use,  either  in  the  course  of  physical  training  or  in  after 
life. 

1.  For  Further  Use  in  Physical  Training.  —  Almost  all 
gymnastic  exercises  must  be  taught  before  they  can  be 
used,  and  during  this  process  they  are  educational.    Even 
natural  exercises  such  as  running  and  walking  are  subject 
to  modification  and  improvement  by  teaching. 

For  example,  corrective  exercises  (for  good  posture) 
must  be  taught  and  learned  thoroughly  before  they  can 
be  practiced  and  the  results  obtained  in  fullest  measure. 
Hygienic  exercises,  usually  used  to  rhythmic  commands, 
should  first  be  taught  and  practiced  to  response  com- 
mands until  the  movements  are  learned  to  precision. 

Mimetic  exercises,  taken  from  games  and  athletics,  must 
be  taught,  and  the  process  of  athletic  coaching  involves 
instruction  and  the  learning  of  movements  of  a  gymnastic 
nature.  All  these  processes  are  educational. 

2.  For  Use   in  Later  Life. --In  many  ways   physical 
training  has  an  educational  service  for  future  life.     Train- 
ing in  games  and  athletics  develops  a  skill  in  their  per- 
formance and  an  interest  in  them  which  will  lead  to  health- 


EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES  155 

ful  and  salutary  leisure-improving  occupation  in  after  life; 
and  one  of  the  most  important  purposes  of  physical  train- 
ing is  to  give  children  and  adults  the  taste  and  desire  to 
use  their  idle  time  in  profitable  recreation.  This  they  will 
not  do  unless  they  have  some  reasonable  degree  of  skill. 

Exercises  for  the  prevention  and  correction  of  flat  foot 
should  be  learned  by  every  one,  for  the  modern  decrease 
of  daily  exercise  and  increase  in  standing  has  caused  this 
disability  to  become  almost  universal. 

Other  gymnastic  exercises  are  taught  for  various  other 
purposes.  Included  in  the  New  York  City  Course  of 
Study  are  exercises  relating  to  "emergency  jumps,"  which 
are  training  for  correct  action  under  conditions  of  stress. 
It  is  worth  while,  always,  if  time  and  opportunity  permit, 
to  teach  children  how  to  walk  and  sit,  and  how  to  rise 
from  a  chair  with  grace  and  ease. 

There  are  allied  fields  which  engage  in  physical  training 
but  which  are  not  usually  within  the  physical  training 
teacher's  province  --  the  teaching  of  handwriting,  type- 
writing, manual  training,  shop  work,  trade  movements, 
and  the  like  --  these  are  all  physical  training  and  the 
process  of  instruction  is  subject  to  the  same  method  as  are 
educational  exercises. 

3.  Value  of  the  Process  of  Learning.  -  The  learning 
process  itself  is  also  of  use.  Every  time  a  child  makes  a 


156         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

conscious  effort  to  learn  a  movement  and  succeeds,  he 
gains  facility  in  the  process  of  learning  and  becomes  more 
able  to  learn.  He  develops  confidence  in  his  ability  and 
is  more  likely  to  say,  "I'll  try"  and  essay  a  task  than  to 
say,  "Oh,  I  can't"  and  refuse  to  make  an  effort.  This  is 
especially  true  when  a  teacher  uses  a  good  method  of  pres- 
entation and  development.  Its  results  are  that  children 
who  have  been  taught  gymnastics  and  who  have  learned 
athletic  games  become  quick  to  "pick  up"  anything,  and 
are  likely  to  become  rapidly  skillful  in  any  mechanical  oc- 
cupation. 

4.  Simplicity.  -  -  In  a  complex  exercise  given  for  the 
first  time,  the  mind  of  the  pupil  is  necessarily  concen- 
trated for  the  most  part  upon  accuracy  involving  the 
proper  adjustment  of  a  large  number  of  muscles  and 
joints.  lie  cannot  concentrate  upon  any  one  item  such 
as  the  position  of  the  shoulder,  without  for  the  moment 
neglecting  the  position  of  the  knee.  head.  hip.  and  trunk. 
Moreover,  he  cannot  concentrate  upon  alert  performance 
for  lie  has  to  make  a  collection  of  his  various  movement 
impulses  and  put  them  together.  Simplicity,  therefore, 
favors  an  accuracy  and  alertness  which  complexity  makes 
difficult.  Accordingly,  we  should  use  simple  exercises  as  a 
rule  and  avoid  complex  exercises.  It  is  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult to  teach  the  ordinarv  normal-school  graduate  to  fol- 


EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES  157 

low  this  rule,  and  some  teachers  never  learn  it.  They 
wish  to  teach  the  latest  "complexity"  which  they  were 
given  as  Seniors.  As  a  result,  they  merely  demonstrate 
the  excellence  of  their  personal  performance  and  the  in- 
feriority of  their  pedagogical  training.  The  best  teachers 
have  learned  that  by  the  use  of  simple  exercises  they  can  get 
practically  all  the  results  they  wish,  for  it  is  habits  of  alert- 
ness and  accuracy  which  have  the  most  educational  value. 

5.  Familiarity.  -  -  Well  known  exercises  completely  fa- 
miliar to  the  students  permit  them  to  focus  all  their  at- 
tention upon  accuracy  and  alertness.      Such  exercises  in 
the  psychological  sense  are  always  simple  for  there  exist 
in  the  mind  prearranged  coordination  paths.    Old,  familiar 
exercises  are  as  a  rule  the  best.    The  teacher  who  continu- 
ally needs  something  new  to  interest  her  class  lacks  the 
ability  to  make  anything  interesting. 

6.  Complexity  and   Coordination.  -  -  Physical  training 
would  be  incomplete  if  it  confined  itself  wholly  to  simple 
movements.     It  is  necessary  to  learn  to  coordinate,  that 
is  to  strive  to  do  a  new  movement  which  involves  the  use 
of  several  groups  of  muscles  simultaneously.     It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  natural  exercises  are  already 
coordinated  and  hence  simple  to  do,  although  they  may 
be  most  complex  in  form.     A  child  can  throw  a  ball  using 
over  one  hundred  and  sixty  muscles  almost  simultaneously; 


158         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

and  he  can  do  this  because  he  has  a  prearranged  system  of 
coordination.  A  professional  baseball  player  has  learned 
how  to  throw  a  ball  in  many  different  ways  and  under  a 
variety  of  conditions,  as  a  result  of  a  training  which  has 
improved  his  psycho-motor  mechanism. 

7.  Existing  and  New  Coordinations.  -  -  The  teacher  will 
find  his  work  divided  into  two  parts:  training  already  ex- 
isting coordinations  and  making  new  coordinations.  The 
first  is  natural,  the  second  unnatural.  One  of  the  great- 
est fields  of  physical  education  is  the  learning  of  new 
movements,  and  the  best  service  the  teacher  can  render 
his  pupils  is  the  development  in  them  of  skill  in  learning 
to  do  new  things.  This  can  be  applied  in  every  walk  of 
life  and  particularly  in  the  movements  of  industry. 

Senior  students  of  a  physical  training  normal  school 
were  sent  to  a  big  industrial  concern  for  a  period  of  six 
weeks  to  learn  by  actual  experience  to  conduct  welfare 
work.  They  were  passed  through  the  ordinary  routine  of 
work  as  if  they  were  regular  employees  and  were  taught 
the  necessary  processes  such  as  stamping,  recording,  etc. 
Such  was  their  training  that  they  learned  these  processes 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  per  cent  more  rapidly  than 
the  regularly  employed  young  woman.  The  movements 
were  unnatural  but  soon  became  habitual  and  were  done 
with  speed  and  facility. 


EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES  159 

Gymnastic  exercises  are  a  succession  of  movements  in 
which  there  are  two,  three,  four,  six,  or  eight  counts,  as 
a  rule  presenting  positions  equal  to  the  number  of  counts 
less  one.  An  exercise  becomes  a  series  of  successive  co- 
ordinations, and  the  pupil  must  remember  it  not  only  as  a 
coordinated  movement  but  in  the  order  of  movements  in- 
volved. As  a  rule  this  is  not  difficult  because  each  move- 
ment becomes  a  cue  to  the  next,  although  an  extreme  is 
reached  in  an  eight-count  exercise  in  which  there  are  seven 
different  positions.  This  is  the  extreme  in  educational 
gymnastics.  Such  advanced  work  however  does  not  be- 
long in  the  ordinary  curriculum  of  any  school  but  rather 
to  a  studio  where  gymnastics  are  pursued  as  an  end  in 
themselves  and  not  as  a  means  to  many  ends. 

II.    HOW    EXERCISES    ARE    TAUGHT    AND    LEARNED 

1.  Teaching  and  Learning.  The  processes  of  teach- 
ing an  exercise  and  of  learning  it,  go  hand-in-hand  and  ap- 
pear to  be  very  simple  when  a  skillful,  sympathetic  teacher 
is  instructing  an  interested  class.  They  are,  however, 
fairly  complex.  Let  us  take  for  example,  a  simple  exercise 
such  as  "placing  the  hands  upon  the  hips,"  done  to  the 
response  command,  --  Hands  on  hips,  PLACE,  and  put 
in  one  column  the  process  of  teaching  and  in  the  other  the 
process  of  learning. 


160 


THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


THE  PROCESS  OF  TEACHING 

(1)  Call  for  "Attention." 

(2)  Description  of  exercise. 

(3)  Demonstration  of  exercise. 

(4)  Recalling  previous  use  of  ex- 

ercise if  any,  and,  if  the  ex- 
ercise is  new,  comparing  it 
with  a  similar  exercise  pre- 
viously used. 

(5)  Preparatory  Command  — 

Hands  on  Hips! 

(6)  Pause. 


(7)  Executive  Command- 

PLACE! 

(8)  (9)    (10)   Observation   of   suc- 

cesses and  errors  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils  and  comment. 


THE  PROCESS  OF  LEARNING 

(1)  Hearing  the  call  and  coming 

to  attention. 

(2)  Hearing  description. 

(3)  Seeing  demonstration. 

(4)  Understanding;   i.e.,  forming 

a  concept  of  the  new  exer- 
cise by  bringing  into  asso- 
ciation memory  pictures  of 
past  similar  exercises  and 
sense  presentations. 

(5)  Hearing  command. 

(6)  (a)  Recognizing   meaning  of 

command. 

(b)  Pre-adjustment  of  nerv- 

ous and 

(c)  Muscular    system;      i.e., 

"pre-coordination." 

(d)  Sensation  of  adjustment 

and  readiness. 

(e)  Waiting  —  inhibition. 

(7)  (a)  Hearing     the     signal     to 

move. 
(b)  Willing  the  effort. 

(8)  (a)  The  process   of    moving 
(b)  accompanied  by  the  sen- 
sations of  movement. 


EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES  161 

(9)  (a)  Willing  to  stop. 

(b)  Stopping. 

(c)  Sensation  of  stopping. 

(d)  The  muscular  sensations 

accompanying  the  new 
position. 

(10)  Consideration  of  the  sensa- 
tions accompanying  the 
new  position  to  see  if  they 
are  in  accord  with  the  mem- 
ories of  teacher's  presen- 
tations. 

(11)  Position!  (11)  Return  to  position;     involv- 

ing hearing,  recall  of  men- 
tal picture  of  previous  po- 
sition, willing  to  move, 
moving,  stopping,  and  sen- 
sations accompanying  the 
same. 
RETRIAL  OR  PRACTICE 

(1)  Presentation  of  three  pictures;  (1)  Attention,  hearing  and  seeing 
first,  the  right  way  to  do  the  teacher,  recalling  memory  of 
exercise;  second,  statement  the  performance  corre- 
of  the  wrong  ways;  third,  spending  to  the  teacher's 
their  differences,  emphasiz-  second  picture,  seeing  pic- 
ing  the  right  way  and  mak-  ture  Xo.  1,  and  making  a 
ing  it  the  last  picture  before  comparison  between  the  two 
giving  the  command.  assisted  by  teacher's  picture 


162         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

No.  3.  Review,  in  the  mind, 
of  sensations  accompany- 
ing previous  movement; 
search  for  the  wrong  ele- 
ment. Feeling  of  success  in 
seizing  upon  the  wrong  ele- 
ment, desire  for  retrial  to 
make  it  correct. 

(2)  Preparatory  command —  (2)  (3)  (4)  See  below. 

Hands  on  hips! 

(3)  Pause. 

(4)  Executive   command  — 

PLACE! 

The  practice  is  then  put  under  way  and  is  accomplished  in  very 
much  the  same  manner  as  was  the  initial  trial  except  that  the  memo- 
ries of  the  previous  trial  are  kept  in  mind  and  held  in  review  for  com- 
parison with  those  accompanying  the  retrial.  After  correction,  fur- 
ther trials  may  be  made  until  reasonable  precision  is  gained. 

III.       THE    PROCESS    OF    TEACHING 

1.  A  Typical  Exercise.  -  -  The  brief  schedule  of  events 
in  the  teaching  of  the  exercise  given  above  may  be  ex- 
panded and  made  more  complete  when  applied  to  a  four- 
count  educational  exercise,  done  to  response  commands, 
which  is  selected  because  it  is  expected  to  be  of  further 
use  in  physical  training  for  promoting  hygienic  purposes. 
We  will  choose  the  following: 


EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES  163 

Position:     Feet  separated  20  inches,  hands  on  shoulders. 

Movement:     Touching  finger  tips  to  floor,  shoulders  and  arms 
stretching  upward,  and  looking  upward. 

Commands: 

(1)  Touching  finger  tips  to  floor  between  feet:  —  ONE! 

(2)  Return  to  starting  position :  —  TWO ! 

(3)  Stretching  arms  upward,  looking  upward :  —  THREE ! 

(4)  Returning  to  starting  position :  —  FOUR ! 

2.    Method  of  Teaching.  -  -  The  proper  way  to  teach 
this  exercise  is  as  follows: 

(1)  The  teacher  must  know   the  exercise  thoroughly. 
If  the  exercise  is  new  and  the  teacher  is  inexperienced,  he 
should   practice   it   the   day   before  he   teaches   it,   going 
through  the  movements  on  command,  just  as  if  he  were 
before   the   class.      In   giving  commands   to   himself,    the 
teacher  should  be  careful  not  to  move  until  he  hears  his 
own  command. 

(2)  Confident  that  he  thoroughly  knows  the  exercise, 
he  informs  the  class  that  a  new  exercise  will  be  taught. 
The  idea  of  novelty  should  be  conveyed  and  a  feeling  of 
interest   aroused,   not   by   using   a   stilted   form,   such   as 
"Now  I  will  teach  you  a  new  exercise"  but  by  the  use  of 
such  varied  phrases  as  "Here  is  a  new  one,"  "Watch  this 
one,"     'Try  this,"    "See  how  quickly  you  can  get  this 
one." 


164         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

(3)  The  class  should  be  given  a  clear  idea  of  the  pur- 
pose of  the  exercise  so  that  it  will  be  interested  and  able 
to  see  why  it  should  expend  its  energy.     It  is  not  enough 
merely  to  state  that  the  exercise  is  "introductory,"  "cor- 
rective," "educational,"  or  "hygienic." 

(a)  For  introductory  work  the  idea  of  briskness,  accur- 
acy, alertness,  and  attention  should  be  given  in  a  word  or 
two. 

(b)  In  corrective   work   the   idea    of  straightening  up, 
lifting  up.  should  be  conveyed. 

fc)  In  educational  work  the  same  ideas  appropriate  to 
the  introductory  section  should  be  used. 

(d)  For  the  hygienic  exercises  hard  work,  vigor,  force, 
and  effort  should  be  emphasized. 

"While  this  point  has  been  treated  fully,  the  teacher  must 
not  get  the  impression  that  he  should  spend  much  time  or 
use  many  words  to  get  the  result  desired.  An  instant  and 
the  right  word  and  manner  are  enough. 

A  talkative  teacher  means  a  bored  class  getting  little 
exercise. 

(4)  The  name  of  the  exercise  should  be  given. 

(5)  The  exercise  should  be  demonstrated  by  the  teach- 
er's giving  commands  to  himself  and  going  through    the 
movements  but  not  until  he  has  notified  the  class  that  the 
commands  and  performance  are  given  for  the  purpose  of 


EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES  165 

demonstration  and  are  not  to  be  followed.  At  this  point 
some  teachers  call  attention  to  errors  that  are  likely  to  be 
made  and  frequently  talk  too  much,  thereby  confusing 
and  tiring  the  pupils.  This  should  be  avoided. 

The  demonstration  and  description  should  end  with  the 
repeating  of  the  name  of  the  exercise  and  the  summing  up 
in  a  few  words  of  everything  that  has  been  said  so  as  to 
put  in  the  pupil's  mind,  as  one  complete  picture,  the  con- 
cept of  the  movement,  and  definitely  to  attach  the  name 
of  the  exercise  to  this  mental  picture. 

(6)  Warning  is  given  to  the  class  to  be  ready  to  do  the 
exercise.    The  word  "Ready"  itself  is  sufficient  but  a  con- 
versational "Now  you  do  it"  or  the  like  may  be  used. 

(7)  The  class  is  put  into  proper  starting  position  by  the 
use  of  the  response  command:      "Hands  on  shoulders  - 
PLACE!" 

(8)  A  description  of  the  first  movement  is  given  as  a 
preparatory  part  of  a  response  command,  as  follows: 

"Finger  tips  to  the  floor!" 

(9)  The  executive  command  is  given: 

"ONE!" 

The  pupils  take  the  first  position  and  hold  it.  During 
this  time  the  teacher  is  not  demonstrating  the  exercise 
but  is  observing  the  class. 


166         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

(10)  The  command  for  the  second  movement  is  given 
as  follows: 

"  Trunk  erect  and  hands  on  shoulders  -  -  TWO!" 

(11)  In  similar  manner  the  3rd  and  4th  movements  are 
given  and  the  exercise  is  completed: 

"Arms  upward  and  looking  up  -  -  THREE! 
Hands  on  shoulders  --  FOUR!" 

(12)  Brief  corrections  are  made  and  the  exercise  is  re- 
peated. 

(13)  Corrections  are  again  made  if  necessary  and  the 
exercise   is   gone   through  once  more,   this    time   without 
the  use  of  the  description  of  each  movement  as  a  prepara- 
tory part  of  the  response  commands.    The  exercise  is  then 
done  in  response  to  the  command: 

"ONE!  TWO!  -  THREE! FOUR!  - 

ONE!"  etc. 

(14)  When  the  exercise  is  subsequently  used  the  teacher 
should  present  it  in  a  similar  manner,  recalling  the  part  of 
it  previously  used  and  reviewing  a  memory  image  of  the 
exercise   as   a   whole.     The  pupil   will   then   compare  the 
memory  image  with  the  images  presented  by  the  teacher 
and  will  be  able  to  proceed  better  than  before  because  the 
exercise  has  been  taught. 


CHAPTER  IX 

REMEMBERING 

1.  Memory.  -  -  The  clarity  and  vividness  of  the  recalled 
mental  image  is  the  measure  of  success  of  the  previous 
teaching. 

If  nothing  is  remembered  by  the  pupil,  no  progress  can 
be  made  either  by  pupil  or  teacher.  The  better  the 
memory  of  the  exercise,  the  better  the  progress.  Remem- 
bering is  a  sign  that  some  impression  remains,  some  change 
has  been  made,  some  improvement  has  been  accomplished; 
in  other  words,  there  has  been  some  education.  Without 
memory  there  can  be  no  education.  Therefore,  the  study 
of  the  laws  of  memory,  of  remembering,  recollecting,  and 
forgetting,  is  of  great  importance  to  the  physical  training 
teacher. 

Briefly  there  are  four  elements  of  memory:  (1)  the  na- 
ture of  the  impression  made  upon  the  pupil's  mind;  (2)  the 
physical  and  mental  condition  of  the  pupil  at  the  time  of 
the  impression;  (3)  repetition;  (4)  recalling. 

2.  Attention.  -  -  To  make  an  impression  upon  the  mind, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  that  mind  in  a  state  of  attention. 
This  is  the  reason  for  one  of  the  rules  previously  given; 

167 


168         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

that  is,  "Never  talk  to  a  class  that  is  not  giving  attention 
unless  it  is  to  get  attention."  The  teacher  can  no  more 
make  an  impression  upon  the  pupil's  mind  when  he  is  not 
paying  attention  than  one  can  talk  to  a  person  by  tele- 
phone with  the  receiver  on  the  hook.  The  mind  of  a 
pupil  is  very  much  like  a  house  with  many  rooms  each 
devoted  to  a  specific  purpose.  There  are  compartments 
of  seeing,  listening,  feeling,  tasting,  smelling,  and  many 
others.  Unless  the  particular  mind  compartment  con- 
cerned with  seeing  is  illuminated,  with  the  full  mental, 
"electrical"  current  turned  on,  the  pupil  does  not  really 
see.  The  pupil's  mind  is  dark  in  this  mental  compart- 
ment while  he  may  be  very  attentive  in  the  hearing  com- 
partment of  his  mind,  listening  to  a  neighboring  pupil;  or 
his  mind  may  be  simply  absent  from  all  sense  impressions, 
wandering  in  a  moving  picture  world  far  from  the  class- 
room. His  eyes  see  not,  nor  do  his  ears  hear.  In  this 
state  physical  exercises  may  be  accomplished  mechanically 
by  almost  subconscious  imitations.  Little  or  no  recollec- 
tion will  be  possible. 

It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  find  means  of  assembling  the 
available  mind  energy  and  focusing  it  upon,  (1)  seeing  the 
exercise.  (2)  hearing  its  description,  and  (3)  willing  and 
experiencing  it  in  action;  all  of  which  should  be  subjected 
to  definite,  directed,  forceful  attention. 


REMEMBERING  169 

Attention  is  an  intensified  form  of  consciousness.  It  is 
the  direction  of  the  mind  toward  any  one  object.  The 
teacher's  voice  if  loud  will  attract  attention.  According 
to  the  law  of  change  of  stimulus,  the  change  from  a  loud 
tone  to  a  low,  quiet  tone  will  attract  attention. 

3.  Interest.  -  -  Things  that  are  interesting  and  things 
that  are  new  attract  attention.     The  teacher  who  makes 
the  lesson  interesting  by  good  selection  of  material  and  a 
proper  method,  gains  and  keeps  attention  and  makes  prog- 
ress in  teaching.    Interest  will  be  obtained  when  the  sub- 
ject is  new,  yet  based  upon  a  certain  amount  of  familiarity 
with  some  similar  experience  already  known  to  the  pupil, 
for  this  arouses  curiosity  and  suggests  attainment. 

4.  Pleasure  and  Pain.  -  -  Things  that  arouse  pleasur- 
able emotions  are  interesting.     If  the  exercise  promises 
fun,  attention  is  gained.     If  the  teacher  merely  indicates 
the  prospect  of  severe  punishment  or  if  a  failure  in  the  ex- 
ercise itself  will  cause  pain,  then  interest  and  attention  are 
automatically  gained.    This  last  principle  was  used  in  the 
United  States  Army  where  games  were  used  for  hygienic 
and  educational  purposes.     It  was  found  that  the  soldier 
played   with   vivid   enthusiasm   those   games   in   which   a 
painful  penalty  was  attached  to  failure  as  in  the  simple 
game  of  "Baste  the  Bear."     The  teacher  must  steer  a 
middle  course  between  the  use  of  the  old  and  of  the  new; 


170         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

that  is,  between  the  principles  of  familiarity  and  of  nov- 
elty. Old  exercises  sometimes  become  stale,  yet  some  old 
games,  like  baseball,  are  ever  new.  New  exercises  and 
games  will  be  interesting  because  they  are  new  but  the 
teacher  who  leans  upon  this  crutch  for  arousing  interest 
will  fail.  Team  games  such  as  volley  ball,  basket  ball, 
and  baseball  stimulate  and  hold  interest  and  attention, 
and  provide  instruction,  improvement,  and  physical  edu- 
cation for  many  months  without  recourse  to  novelty  to 
sustain  the  interest. 

5.  Voluntary  and  Involuntary  Attention.  —  Attention 
may  be  involuntary  or  voluntary.      Involuntary  attention 
arises  from  natural  causes  and  is  given  without  conscious 
effort.     Voluntary  attention,  however,  must  be  called  for 
and  consciously  given.     Most  of  the  attention  given  by 
the  pupil   should   be   involuntary,   given   as   a  matter   of 
course.  Voluntary  attention  commanded  and  received  by 
the  teacher  should  play  a  subordinate  but  a  very  definite 
part  in  the  lesson.    Practice  in  getting  attention  and  hold- 
ing it  is  a  valuable  feature  of  physical  education. 

6.  Rhythms  in  Attention. -- Attention  is  a  mental  ef- 
fort which  like  muscular  effort  should  not  be  continuous 
but   rhythmic.     To   hold   a   "fall-out"   position  for  long 
tires  the  muscles,  so  in  exactly  a  similar  manner,  the  mind 
is   tired   by   continuous  attention   focused   upon  any  one 


REMEMBERING  171 

thing.  As  we  get  the  greatest  amount  of  work  done  by 
the  muscles,  if  we  exercise  them  rhythmically;  that  is,  by 
relaxation  following  contraction,  it  follows  that  we  get  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  from  the  mind  by  calling  rhyth- 
mically for  attention  and  not  requiring  its  continuous  ap- 
plication. The  teacher  must  recognize  this  in  her  instruc- 
tion, often  relieving  the  attention  of  the  class  from  the 
lesson  with  the  command,  "In  place  rest"  or  a  similar  less 
formal  interlude. 

7.  Mind  Receptivity.  -  -  When  the  wise  classroom 
teacher  desires  the  children  to  be  particularly  bright  and 
keen  for  a  written  test  she  gives  a  "Two-minute  setting- 
up  drill."  Following  the  same  principle,  the  physical 
training  teacher  should  provide  for  relaxation  before  he 
attacks  an  especially  difficult  task. 

The  physical  conditions  of  the  pupils  affect  their  ability 
to  pay  attention.  If  they  are  tired  physically  or  ill-nour- 
ished, if  the  temperature  is  too  high,  or  if  the  room  is 
stuffy,  their  minds  cannot  be  easily  concentrated  nor  can 
they  be  kept  at  attention  long.  This  illustrates  the  bene- 
fit of  physical  training  to  the  classroom  for  when  children 
have  had  their  bodies  improved  by  physical  education, 
they  can  render  better  attention  in  their  other  studies. 

The  mind  may  also  be  weary  from  previous  classroom 
work  and  incapable  of  giving  high,  broad,  rhythms  of  at- 


172         THE   PEDAGOGY   OF   PHYSICAL   TRAINING 

tention.  In  some  schools,  lessons  in  gymnastics  have  fre- 
quently been  periods  of  the  hardest  kind  of  mental  appli- 
cation requiring  far  more  mental  effort  than  Arithmetic 
or  English.  They  provided  absolutely  no  relaxation.  This 
was  a  serious  error.  Though  they  have  a  definite  unre- 
placeable  function,  exercises  with  the  use  of  response  com- 
mands must  not,  under  any  circumstances,  dominate  the 
physical  education  period.  Having  given  attention  to  the 
elements  of  teaching  which  make  for  interest  and  atten- 
tion, the  teacher  will  have  done  much  to  insure  remem- 
bering. 

8.  Clearness  and  Emphasis.  —  Of  almost  equal  impor- 
tance, in  making  good  and  lasting  impressions  on  the 
minds  of  the  pupils,  is  the  clarity  and  definiteness  with 
which  the  mental  image  is  presented.  There  must  be  no 
question  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  as  to  what  is  desired  in 
position  or  movement.  The  demonstration  of  the  teacher 
must  be  confident,  unhesitating,  and  complete.  Her  de- 
scription must  emphasize  those  points  where  the  mental 
process  of  the  pupil  might  branch  oft'  from  the  true  road 
and  perfect  performance.  For  instance,  if  the  arms  arc 
stretched  to  the  side  with  the  palms  up  at  the  height  of 
the  eyes,  the  teacher  should  show  the  position  with  the 
palms  up,  look  at  her  own  hands,  and  at  the  time  the 
word  "up"'  is  spoken  in  her  description,  her  hands  should 


REMEMBERING  173 

be  raised,  stretched  out  and  flattened,  thus  keeping  the 
auditory-visual  picture.  This  is  the  basis  of  much  of  the 
work  in  the  dramatic  art,  an  art  which  the  teacher  is  prac- 
ticing when  she  portrays  the  movement  she  wishes  the 
pupils  to  see  and  learn.  The  teacher,  however,  must  not 
overdo  it,  for  she  can  by  over  emphasis  create  the  wrong 
impression,  destroy  accuracy,  and  call  attention  to  her- 
self. This  last  is  a  fatal  error  for  it  removes  the  attention 
of  the  pupil  from  the  desired  object,  the  exercise. 

9.  Contrast.  -  -  The     principle     of     contrast    may    be 
brought  into  the  instruction  and  the  teacher  may  make 
the  image  of  the  exercise  clear  by  contrasting  it  with  a 
picture  of  the  movement  that  is  \vrong.     As  a  rule,  how- 
ever,  this   contrast   should   not   be   made   upon   the   first 
presentation  because  the  teacher  will  present  two  images 
and  the  pupil  is  likely  to  learn  the  wrong  as  well  as  the 
right.     The  best  time  for  this  contrast  is  after  the  first 
trial  when  errors  have  been  made.     Only  when  one  wishes 
to  contrast  a  new  exercise  with  an  old  one  similar  to  it  is 
the  demonstration  of  both  unqualifiedly  legitimate  in  the 
beginning.     Thus  the  clarity  of  the  impression  in  its  com- 
pleteness serves  to  assist  memory. 

10.  Volitional  Memory.  -    The  image  of  the  exercise  is, 
however,  not  entirely  complete  when  there  is  a  clear  pic- 
ture of  this  description  and  a  clear  picture  of  how  it  looks. 


174         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

There  must  also  be  an  equally  clear  picture  of  how  to  do 
the  movement  itself  and  how  it  feels  to  do  it  correctly. 
The  first  is  a  volitional  phase  of  the  mind  which  in  some 
people  may  be  very  weak  and  in  others  very  strong. 
There  are  some  feeble-minded  pupils  who  can  picture 
clearly  what  is  to  be  done  but  can  only  with  the  greatest 
difficulty  bring  themselves  to  make  the  necessary  psychic 
and  nervous  adjustments  to  do  it. 

There  is  a  distinct  feeling  of  mental  as  well  as  physical 
adjustment  to  the  desired  movement  as  it  has  been 
clearly  pictured.  This  accompanies  the  actual  discharge 
of  nervous  impulses  in  the  brain  and  results  in  a  feeling 
that  all  is  ready  for  the  trial  itself.  Very  little  is  known 
of  this  mental  phase  of  exercise  but  it  can  be  easily 
identified  by  the  physical  training  teacher  from  her  own 
experience. 

11.  Kinsesthetic  Sense.  -  -  There  must  be  intimately  as- 
sociated with  the  memories  of  sound,  sight,  and  volition 
the  memory  of  how  it  actually  fell  to  do  the  exercise. 
This  is  the  kinaesthetic  sense  and  comes  from  the  sensa- 
tion of  movement  of  the  body  parts,  of  effort,  and  of  the 
position  of  the  hody  parts  when  they  have  come  to  rest. 
The  teacher  should  utilize  the  kinaesthetic  sense  in  her  en- 
deavor to  get  a  clear,  mental  picture  of  the  exercise  which 
now  lias  become  a  concept  by  the  intimate  joining  together 


REMEMBERING  175 

of  all  of  its  various  parts.  When  the  position  is  properly 
taken,  she  may  say,  "Now  that  you  have  it  right,  just  see 
how  it  feels."  She  may  contrast  it  with  the  feeling  of 
other  wrong  positions.  This  is  particularly  important  in 
corrective  work  for  good  posture  in  which  the  first  impor- 
tant task  is  to  teach  the  pupils  the  feeling  of  good  posture. 
They  can  only  feel  their  good  or  bad  posture  whereas 
others  can  only  see  it.  The  picture  of  the  exercise  can 
sometimes  be  made  clearer  by  asking  the  pupils  to  look  at 
the  hands,  knee,  or  foot  in  its  new  position  and  to  correct 
it  if  necessary.  Thus  we  have  established  in  the  pupil's 
mind,  a  clear,  complete  concept  consisting  of  definite  sense 
impressions  from  every  available  source  which  form  a  com- 
plete whole. 

12.  Recalling.  -  -  The  old-fashioned  country  well  is  pro- 
vided with  a  bucket  which  is  let  down  into  the  cool  water 
at  the  bottom  of  the  well  and  pulled  up  again  by  a  rope 
attached  sometimes  to  a  long  well-sweep  and  sometimes 
to  a  creaking  windlass.  The  water  bucket  would  be  of 
little  use  without  the  rope  to  pull  it  up.  When  an  idea  is 
put  away  in  the  mind,  we  must  have  ways  of  reaching  or 
recalling  it;  otherwise,  it  is  of  no  use  to  us.  Thus  when 
an  exercise  is  given,  we  give  it  a  name.  It  becomes  tied 
to  it  as  the  rope  is  to  the  bucket  by  a  knot  which  we  call 
association.  It  is  part  of  the  teacher's  duty  to  make  these 


176         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

knots  hard  and  fast.  Thus,  when  the  exercise  is  first  in- 
troduced, it  is  described  and  the  name  is  given  as  a  final 
summary  and  is  repeated  again  in  the  preparatory  part  of 
the  command.  Sometimes  it  is  wise  to  give  a  short  name 
to  an  exercise,  or  to  add  to  it  some  feature  of  peculiar  sig- 
nificance and  interest,  such  as,  "The  Liver  Squeezer" 
(Robert  J.  Roberts) ;  the  familiar  mimetic  exercises, 
''Walking  Beam,"  "Mowing,"  "Windmill";  ind  aesthetic 
positions  as  "Adoration,"  "Entreaty,"  etc.,  etc. 

13.  Association.  -  -  These  effectively  recall,  by  natural 
interesting  association,  the  exercise  not  only  as  an  exercise 
but  as  a  procedure  something  similar  to  another  object  or 
movement.  Not  only  is  it  well  to  state  the  name  before 
the  exercise  is  given,  but  to  repeat  it  once  or  twice  and  to 
leave  it  the  last  thing  to  enter  the  pupil's  mind;  for  exam- 
ple, "Now  that  you  have  learned  the  Jete;  remember  that 
before  we  go  on  to  the  Pirouette."  This  is  called  associa- 
tion by  contiguity  because  the  name  and  the  exercise  occur 
contiguously  and  tend  to  recall  each  other.  Some  names 
of  exercises  as  the  "Windmill,"  "Chopping,"  and  the 
'Trout  Jump"  are  associated  with  some  object  or  move- 
ment which  the  gymnastic  exercise  itself  resembles;  for 
example,  the  movement  of  the  Indian  clubs  in  "Wind- 
mill" is  similar  to  that  of  the  arms  of  a  real  windmill; 
"Chopping"  is  done  as  with  an  axe:  while  the  launching 


REMEMBERING  177 

of  the  body  through  the  air  in  the  "Trout  Jump"  is  like 
the  movement  of  the  fish  itself  as  it  leaves  the  water. 
Thus  we  have  an  association  by  similarity. 

14.  Teaching  by  Association.  -  -  Throughout  all  our 
physical  training  there  is  an  opportunity  to  teach  by  asso- 
ciation, beginning  with  the  children  in  the  kindergarten 
and  ending  with  the  highest  cultural  phases  of  dancing. 
In  the  kindergarten,  most  of  our  dances  and  gymnastic 
stories  are  based  upon  imitation  and  mimicry.  If  we  wish 
to  teach  deep  breathing,  we  make  believe  that  we  are 
smelling  flowers,  calling  into  play  the  natural  psycho- 
motor  mechanism  for  taking  deep  breaths  of  fragrant 
flower  perfume. 

If  we  were  to  give  such  commands  to  little  children  as 
"expand  the  chest,"  "lift  the  ribs  and  depress  the  dia- 
phragm," no  deep  breaths  would  be  taken  because  there 
exists  in  their  consciousness  no  knowledge  of  the  manage- 
ment of  the  chest  or  ribs  or  diaphragm.  If,  however, 
we  present  a  clear  picture  of  flower  and  perfume,  and  then 
ask  the  children  to  smell  the  flower  they  will  inhale  deeply. 
We  have  come  upon  Nature's  own  territory  and  the  pic- 
ture is  the  clue  to  the  movement.  It  is  very  much  like 
the  rope  which  was  tied  to  the  mental  bucket  which  drew, 
from  the  minds  of  children,  the  water  of  memory.  Thus 
if  we  desire  a  movement  to  be  done,  the  best  way  that  we 


178         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

can  insure  its  performance  is  to  find  the  natural  idea 
which  corresponds  most  closely  to  it,  present  the  idea,  and 
elicit  the  action. 

We  may  also  get  a  deep  breath  by  making  believe  we 
are  blowing  bubbles.  We  can  get  vigorous  upward  stretch- 
ing by  making  believe  we  are  trees  standing  up  tall  in 
a  forest.  We  can  double  the  vigor  of  charging  if  we  let 
the  pupils  imagine  that  they  are  lunging  toward  a  real 
opponent. 

Folk  dances  and  singing  games  are  replete  with  mimicry 
and  dramatic  action,  much  of  which  has  hardly  to  be  taught. 
It  has  merely  to  be  elicited.  Interpretative  dancing  is 
definitely  based  upon  imitation  of  some  natural  object  or 
event.  In  fact,  the  whole  gamut  of  dancing  (unless  it  has 
been  degenerated  into  stilted  formality)  is  an  endeavor  to 
tell  a  story  by  movements  which  suggest,  imply,  or  di- 
rectly describe  the  story.  All  of  this  is  founded  upon  or 
closely  related  to  association  by  similarity. 

15.  Teaching  by  "  Idea."  -  By  the  use  of  this  method, 
we  are  frequently  enabled  to  teach  more  quickly,  truly, 
and  completely  than  by  more  ordinary  pedagogical  meth- 
ods. I  have  called  it  "teaching  by  idea."  We  put  an 
idea  into  the  pupil's  mind  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the 
motor  expression.  If  we  tell  the  pupils  what  to  think 
rather  than  what  to  do,  they  frequently  will  do  what  we 


REMEMBERING  179 

want  them  to  do  when  the  direct  instruction  would  fail. 
The  elevation  cues  in  corrective  work  are  in  this  field. 
The  teaching  of  the  back  air  spring  involves  a  brief  vivid 
series  of  strong  efforts  best  expressed  by,  "Think  up  in 
the  air;  then  double  up  like  a  jackknife;  quick."  Teach- 
ing the  double  rear  vault  on  the  horse,  may  be  facilitated 
by  telling  the  gymnast  to  think  "over  there,"  "there" 
being  the  end  of  the  croup.  In  brief,  the  more  one  sym- 
pathetically understands  how  the  child's  mind  works,  the 
more  successful  will  he  be  in  eliciting  the  proper  responses 
and  developing  skill  in  movement. 

16.  Repetition.  —  An  exercise  is  not  learned  when  it  is 
done  once.  It  may  be  remembered  sufficiently  well  to 
guide  a  reasonably  correct  repetition  if  that  is  instituted 
at  once.  But  unless  this  repetition  occurs  immediately, 
the  new  collection  of  memory  images  fails  to  become  a 
clear,  well-knit  concept,  and  remains  very  much  at  the 
mercy  of  succeeding  mental  impressions.  In  other  words, 
if  the  exercise  is  not  repeated  one  or  more  times,  it  is  not 
likely  to  be  remembered.  During  repetitions,  it  is  the 
teacher's  duty  to  see  that  each  effort  reestablishes  the  pri- 
mary impression,  improving  and  strengthening  it.  Atten- 
tion should  not  be  allowed  to  flag.  The  mind  forces  should 
be  concentrated  upon  the  succession  of  sensations  and 
efforts.  Throughout  the  whole  procedure  there  should  be 


180         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

an  effort  toward  perfection,  a  feeling  of  gain,  of  increased 
success,  and  of  accomplishment.  At  the  end  of  the  series 
of  repetitions,  there  should  remain  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils, 
a  sense  of  knowing  the  exercise,  of  having  accomplished 
something  and  having  done  it  well.  The  name  of  the  ex- 
ercise should  be  securely  attached  to  the  rest  of  the  concept, 
so  that  there  should  be  a  clear  and  accessible  mind  path- 
way to  the  memory  image. 

17.  Mental  Cues.  -  -  In  games  and  athletics,  the  pupil 
is  involved  in  a  series  of  exercises  which  are  initiated  and 
changed  from  one  form  to  another  by  himself  rather  than 
by  the  teacher.  He  gives  his  own  signals  which  depend 
upon  the  exigencies  of  the  game.  He  receives  his  cues  and 
signals  to  run,  jump,  stop,  dodge,  or  throw  from  what 
happens  in  the  game  itself.  This  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration by  the  teacher  and  the  athletic  coach.  The 
pupils  must  be  trained  not  only  as  to  what  they  are  to  do 
and  how  to  do  it,  but  to  do  the  right  thing  at  the  right 
time  and  to  do  it  quickly  --in  other  words,  to  interpret 
correctly  the  signals  given  in  the  game  as  cues  eliciting 
the  proper  motor  response.  Thus  the  major  part  of  ath- 
letic coaching  is  training  the  players  to  interpret  the  en- 
vironmental conditions  as  a  cue  to  appropriate  action,  to 
size  up  the  situation,  and  to  do  the  right  thing  at  the 
proper  moment.  Knowledge  and  ability  are  useless 


REMEMBERING  181 

unless  they  are  brought  into  action  at  the  appropriate 
time. 

In  the  teaching  of  hygiene,  most  of  our  instructions 
apply  to  the  regulation  of  life  at  home.  We  tell  children 
that  they  should  wash  their  hands  and  show  them  how  to 
do  it.  If  they  fail  to  wash  their  hands,  it  is  not  because 
they  do  not  know  how,  but  because  they  forget.  Nothing 
reminds  them  to  do  it.  Herein  lies  the  chief  task  in  the 
teaching  of  hygiene,  to  establish  cues  that  will  automatic- 
ally and  efficiently  remind  the  children  to  do  as  they 
should  at  the  proper  time  and  place. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  cues  or  reminders  --  those  of 
time  and  those  of  place.  If  we  wish  the  bed  aired,  we 
will  say,  "When  you  get  up,  throw  the  bed  clothes  over 
the  foot  of  the  bed,"  pressing  deeply  into  the  mind,  the 
association  of  getting  up  and  bed  clothes.  Thus  when 
the  act  of  getting  up  is  performed,  the  association  brings 
to  mind  "bed  clothes." 

Similarly,  such  reminders  as  follow  may  be  applied: 
"When,  you  put  on  your  hat,  look  to  see  if  your  hands  are 
clean;"  "When  you  take  off  your  stockings,  hang  them 
up;"  "When  you  crawl  into  bed,  ask  yourself,  'Have  I 
opened  the  window?'  Frequently,  the  association  acts 
tardily  and  there  is  left  in  the  mind  of  the  child,  when  he 
gets  up  or  goes  to  bed,  only  a  feeling  that  he  was  to  do 


182         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

something  but  does  not  know  what  it  is.  If  he  makes  an 
effort,  he  may  remember;  if  the  impression  has  been  deep 
enough  on  a  receptive  mind,  it  will  be  remembered. 

This  principle  is  an  important  one  and  not  as  yet  well 
implanted  pedagogically.  It  deserves  a  far  more  import- 
ant place  than  has  hitherto  been  given  it. 


CHAPTER  X 

HYGIENIC  WORK 

1.  Definition  of  Hygienic  Work. -- Hygienic  work  in- 
cludes activities  designed  to  stimulate  the  internal  organs, 
to  increase  circulation  and  respiration,  to  insure  health  and 
vigor,  to  strengthen  the  larger  muscular  masses,  and  to 
produce  physical  power  and  endurance.    It  is  called  hygi- 
enic because  of  its  value  in  health  conservation.     It  may 
also  be  called  physiological  work  because  it  produces  its 
results  by  stimulation  of  the  physiological  processes  of 
the  body. 

2.  The  Purpose  of  Hygienic  Work.  -  -  In  the  division  of 
hygienic  or  physiological  work  lies   the  most  important 
function  of  physical  exercise  --to  improve  present  health 
and  to  endeavor  to  insure  the  continuance  of  good  physical 
condition.     This  is  "physical  exercise"  as  it  is  actually 
understood  by  the  man  in  the  street. 

The  effect  of  muscular  movements  on  the  health  is 
immediate  and  direct  in  improving  circulation  and  in  stim- 
ulating all  body  processes.  An  organ  not  called  upon  to 
do  its  ordinary  amount  of  daily  work  soon  becomes  stag- 
nant and  is  liable  to  become  diseased.  The  body  as  a 
whole  is  composed  of  organs  and  its  freedom  from  disease 

1S3 


184         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

depends  upon  the  proper  functioning  of  these  organs.  In- 
asmuch as  approximately  one  half  of  the  body's  work  is 
muscular  and  at  least  one  half  of  the  work  of  the  brain  is 
concerned  with  muscular  movement,  the  value  of  physio- 
logical work  is  apparent. 

Under  modern  conditions,  mankind  has  successively  and 
progressively  decreased  the  need  for  muscular  work.  He 
protects  himself  by  warm  clothing  and  he  lives  in 
warm  houses.  He  does  not  need  exercise  to  keep  him 
warm.  All  kinds  of  vocational,  industrial,  and  home  work 
are  being  done  more  and  more  by  machinery  and  less  and 
less  by  unaided  muscular  work.  Three  quarters  of  the 
men  and  women  in  a  large  city  earn  their  living  without 
doing  any  more  muscular  work  than  that  occasioned  in 
walking  to  a  car,  clinging  to  a  strap,  reading  a  newspaper, 
sitting  at  a  desk  and  dictating  letters,  and  the  like.  Thus 
there  is  little  work  for  the  large  muscles  of  the  body  and  a 
great  deal  of  work  for  the  smaller  muscles  of  the  hand 
and  also  for  the  voice  production  muscles.  This  progress- 
ive ease  causes  body  stagnation,  and  exercise  must  be 
taken  deliberately  to  counteract  the  resultant  bad  effects. 

I.    THE    MUSCLES 

Inasmuch  as  physical  training  is  directly  concerned  with 
muscular  work,  the  nature  of  the  muscles  and  the  pro- 


HYGIENIC   WORK  185 

cesses  of  muscular  contraction  should  be  thoroughly  un- 
derstood if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

1.  Gross  Anatomy.  -  -  Muscles  are  usually  either   spin- 
dle-shaped or  flat  in  form.    As  a  rule  they  are  broad  in  the 
middle,  tapering  at  the  ends,  and  round  in  a  cross  section. 
They  may  be  attached  directly  to  bones,  but  are  usually 
attached  to  tendons  which  are  in  turn  attached  to  bones. 
Tendons  should  not  be  confused  with  ligaments,  which  run 
from  bone  to  bone.     A  few  muscles  are  attached  only  to 
the  skin. 

2.  Muscular   Contraction   and   Relaxation.  -  -  ^Then   a 
muscle  contracts   it  increases   its   circumference   and  de- 
creases its  length.     Hence  its  contraction  will  bring  closer 
together  the  bones  to  which  its  ends  are  attached.     When 
a  muscle  relaxes  it  simply  remains  passive.     It  does  not 
actually  push  apart  its  ends  and  become  long  again.     It 
merely  permits  itself  to  be  lengthened  by  the  weight  it 
has  previously  lifted  or  by  the  contraction  of  an  opposing 
muscle  which  will  pull  against  it. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  mus^e  will  hold  itself  in  a 
state  of  contraction,  pulling  against  a  weight  or  the  pull 
of  another  muscle,  and  allow  itself  gradually  to  lengthen. 
This  semi-passive  form  of  contraction  of  the  muscle 
which  accompanies  its  lengthening,  is  called  excentric 
contraction. 


186         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

The  usual  form  of  muscle  contraction  in  which  the 
muscle  shortens  and  bulges  is  called  concentric  contraction. 

Sometimes  the  muscle  makes  a  contraction  effort  which 
is  evenly  matched  by  some  weight  or  by  the  contraction  of 
an  antagonistic  muscle.  In  this  case  it  neither  lengthens 
nor  shortens.  This  is  called  static  contraction. 

For  example,  in  holding  the  arm  straight  out  at  shoul- 
der level,  the  deltoid  muscle  of  the  shoulder  which  holds 
up  the  arm  is  in  static  contraction.  If  we  allow  the  arm 
slowly  to  drop  to  the  side,  the  deltoid  is  in  excentric  con- 
traction, thereby  steadying  the  movement.  If  we  raise  it 
again  to  the  level  of  the  shoulder,  the  deltoid  is  thrown 
into  concentric  contraction. 

The  muscles  of  the  upper  arm  afford  a  simple  illustra- 
tion. The  biceps  in  the  front  part  of  the  arm  is  attached 
to  a  bone  of  the  forearm,  that  is  immediately  in  front  of 
the  elbow  joint.  When  the  biceps  pulls,  the  forearm  is 
raised;  when  it  relaxes,  the  forearm  drops.  The  triceps 
is  in  the  back  part  of  the  upper  arm  and  is  attached  to  a 
bone  of  the  forearm  which  extends  back  of  the  elbow 
joint.  When  the  elbow  is  bent  and  the  triceps  contracts, 
it  pulls  on  this  little  backward  extension  of  the  forearm 
and  throws  the  bulk  of  the  forearm  forward  and  outward. 
If  the  biceps  and  triceps  contract  both  at  the  same  time, 
then  the  arm  will  straighten  or  bend  at  the  elbow  depend- 


HYGIENIC   WORK  187 

ing  upon  which  is  contracted  more  vigorously.  The  one 
that  pulls  the  harder  will  shorten  in  concentric  contrac- 
tion; the  weaker  will  lengthen  in  excentric  contraction. 
If  they  both  pull  the  same,  they  will  both  remain  in  static 
contraction. 

3.  Muscular  Tone.  -  -  There  is  a  form  of  muscular  ac- 
tivity which  is  continuous  throughout  the  whole  of  life. 
It  is  called  muscular  tone.     This  is  illustrated  by  the  fact 
that  when  the  muscles  are  cut  across,   the  ends  shrink 
apart  and  leave  a  gap.    This  state  of  muscular  tone  is  due 
to  a  series  of  constant  contraction  impulses,  from  ten  to 
twenty  per  second.     Muscular  tone  varies;    in  well-nour- 
ished vigorous  individuals  it  is  strong;   in  individuals  with 
lax,  amemic  muscles  it  is  weak. 

4.  Microscopic  Anatomy.  -  -  There  are  three  kinds   of 
muscles:   voluntary  muscle,  which  is  striated;    involuntary 
muscle,  which  is  smooth;    and  heart  muscle,  which  is  both 
striated  and  involuntary. 

Each  muscle  is  composed  of  muscle  fibers  which  are 
from  one  third  to  one  half  an  inch  in  length  but  only 
1/7.50  to  1/4,50  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  fibers  are 
spindle-shaped  and  taper  to  a  point  at  each  end,  and  each 
has  crossbands  of  alternating  light  and  dark.  Each  fiber  is 
a  single  cell  in  which  there  are  many  cell  nuclei,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  cell  wall  called  sarcolemma.  The  fibers 


188         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

are  packed  together,  side  by  side,  to  form  muscle  bundles, 
and  are  bound  together  by  a  network  of  connective  tissue 
fibers  known  as  endomysium. 

The  muscle  bundle  thus  formed  of  many  muscle  fibers, 
is  surrounded  by  a  still  firmer  envelope  of  connective 
tissue  called  epimysium.  The  more  connective  tissue  there 
is  present  in  the  structure,  the  harder  is  the  muscle. 
Nerves,  veins,  arteries,  and  lymphatics  run  in  the  con- 
nective tissues  that  surround  the  muscle  fibers  and  bun- 
dles. 

5.  Chemical  Composition  of  the  Muscle.  -  -  The  muscle 
is  composed  mostly  of  the  proteids,  myosin  and  myosino- 
gen,  and  of  carbohydrates  in  the  form  of  glycogen.  Pro- 
teids form  the  structure  of  the  muscle.  Glycogen  is  its 
fuel,  the  oxidation  of  which  supplies  energy  and  produces 
contraction.  In  addition  there  are  various  other  sub- 
stances of  the  nature  of  enzymes,  salts,  and  pigments, 
while  water  forms  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  total  weight. 

II.    THE    EFFECTS   OF    MUSCULAR    CONTRACTION 

Muscular  contraction  affects  the  body  in  many  ways. 
Since  so  much  of  the  body  weight  and  bulk  is  in  muscular 
tissue,  and  since  the  muscles  are  in  active  use  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  life  of  man,  the  results  of  this  activity 
are  exceedingly  important.  When  the  muscles  are  thrown 


HYGIENIC   WORK  189 

into  activity,  it  is  a  signal  for  the  rest  of  the  body  also  to 
become  active.  A  study  of  the  physiology  of  exercise  is 
really  a  study  of  the  whole  human  physiology  because 
muscular  exercise  merely  increases  body  processes  which 
are  continually  going  on  and  changes  them  otherwise  but 
little. 

There  is  such  a  variety  of  effects  of  muscular  exercise 
that  they  require  classification.  When  the  muscle  con- 
tracts it  changes  its  own  form  and  structure  and  affects 
the  surrounding  tissues.  The  changes  which  occur  in  and 
around  the  muscle  are  called  the  local  effects  of  exercise 
in  contra-distinction  to  the  effects  of  exercise  which  occur 
in  other  parts  of  the  body  and  which  are  called  general 
effects.  Both  the  local  and  general  effects  of  exercise  may 
be  either  mechanical  or  chemical.  If  they  are  mechanical 
there  is  some  physical  and  structural  change  of  form  or 
place.  The  chemical  effects  are  those  which  actually 
change  the  chemical  nature  of  the  body  tissues  and  fluids. 

Some  of  the  effects  of  muscular  activity,  such  as  the 
shortening  of  the  muscle  and  the  combustion  of  muscle 
food  content,  occur  at  once,  and  are  called  the  immediate 
effects  of  exercise.  Others,  such  as  the  effect  upon  the 
appetite  and  the  increase  of  the  development  of  the  mus- 
cles occur  much  later  and  are  called  the  remote  effects  of 
exercise. 


190         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

III.       LOCAL    EFFECTS    OF    EXERCISE 

1.  Immediate  Mechanical  Effects.  --  Upon  the  contrac- 
tion of  a  muscle  its  fibers  become  hard  and  press  against 
each  other.  All  the  blood  vessels  and  lymphatics  which 
run  between  the  bundles  are  flattened  and  their  fluid  con- 
tents are  to  a  great  extent  pressed  out.  One  of  the  most 
beneficial  effects  is  the  compression  of  the  surrounding 
veins  against  the  skin  or  against  other  muscles  and  tissues. 
This  is  particularly  important  in  the  legs  where  the  blood 
in  the  veins  must  mount  all  the  way  from  the  feet  to  the 
abdomen,  and  thence  to  the  heart.  The  squeezing  of  the 
veins  presses  the  blood  upward  toward  the  heart,  because 
the  valves  in  the  veins  prevent  it  from  flowing  down. 
This  assists  the  circulation  materially.  Standing  still  pro- 
duces a  great  strain  upon  the  veins,  and  after  a  while 
may  cause  them  to  become  varicose.  The  lymph  is  also 
squeezed  from  the  surrounding  tissues  and  is  pressed  to- 
ward the  heart  in  exactly  the  same  way.  Moreover,  the 
blood  vessels  in  the  skin  dilate.  The  skin  becomes  red  and 
warm,  and  the  sweat  glands  become  active.  The  muscle 
itself  may  shorten  or  lengthen  or  remain  the  same. 

When  the  muscle  is  relaxed,  the  blood  vessels  and  lym- 
phatics are  relieved  from  pressure  and  are  immediately 
filled  again  with  blood  and  lymph.  Usually  they  are  re- 
plenished more  fully  than  before.  Upon  the  next  contrac- 


HYGIENIC   WORK  191 

tion  and  relaxation  the  process  of  squeezing  and  refilling 
is  repeated.  Thus  the  rhythmic  contraction  and  relaxa- 
tion of  the  muscle  works  like  a  blood  and  lymph  pump, 
and  each  muscle  helps  the  circulation  very  much  as  if  it 
were  an  accessory  heart.  This  muscle  pumping  gives  the 
best  effect  when  the  muscle  is  completely  contracted  and 
shortened  alternately  with  complete  relaxation  and  length- 
ening. But  the  effect  decreases  with  the  decrease  in  am- 
plitude and  ceases  entirely  in  static  contraction. 

2.  Remote  Mechanical  Effects.  -  -  The  remote  mechan- 
ical effects  are  increase  in   the  size  and  hardness  of  the 
muscle.    Increase  in  size  depends  upon  good  nutrition.    It 
is  favored  by  rhythmic,  long-continued  contractions  with 
moderate  weights.     A  muscle  becomes  hard  from  heavy 
long-continued  work  as  the  result  of  increase  in  its  con- 
nective tissue  elements.     It  is  important,  particularly  in 
work  for  the  obtaining  of  good  posture,  to  shorten  muscles 
as  well  as  to  strengthen  them.     This  may  be  done  by  ap- 
plying the  principle  stated  before,  that  muscles  tend  to 
assume  the  position  in  which  they  are  exercised.     They 
are  therefore  shortened  quickest    and    best    by    vigorous 
exercise    in    the    proximal    third    of    the  complete  arc  of 
movement. 

3.  The  Local,  Chemical,  Immediate  Effects. -- Effects 
that  are  immediate,  local,  and  chemical  are  due  primarily 


192         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

to  the  fact  that  muscular  contraction  is  accomplished  by 
the  combustion  of  the  carbohydrates  in  the  muscle.  This 
oxidation  of  the  carbohydrates  releases  energy  and  causes 
heat,  thus  making  the  muscle  warm.  Use  stimulates 
growth;  and  this  stimulation  lasts  for  some  time  and  may 
be  classed  as  a  remote  effect. 

Since  muscular  contraction  uses  the  food  carbohydrates 
stored  in  the  muscle,  the  supply  must  be  replenished  from 
the  blood  which  in  turn  gets  it  from  the  digestive  organs 
and  from  the  liver. 

The  waste  products  of  combustion  are  chemical  results 
of  muscular  exercise.  These  wastes  are  mainly  carbon  di- 
oxide and,  to  a  lesser  degree,  the  products  of  the  breaking 
down  of  the  proteid  structure  of  the  muscle  which,  if  not 
promptly  removed  by  the  lymphatic  system,  will  poison 
the  muscle. 

4.  Muscular  Soreness.  -  -  There  are  two  kinds  of  mus- 
cular soreness,  chemical  and  mechanical.  The  first  is  the 
result  of  the  chemical  wear  and  of  the  poisoning  effects  of 
the  breaking  down  of  the  proteid  muscle  structure  in  an 
untrained  muscle  unexpectedly  and  heavily  exercised.  If 
these  waste  products  are  not  removed  with  sufficient  ra- 
pidity, they  remain  and  poison  the  muscle,  thus  causing 
it  to  become  painful.  The  second  kind  of  muscular  sore- 
ness also  occurs  because  of  an  untrained  muscle's  being 


HYGIENIC   WORK  193 

called  upon  suddenly  for  heavy  work.  The  muscle  fibers, 
not  being  used  to  this  heavy  work,  contract  unevenly,  and 
the  fine  connective  tissue  fibers  attaching  one  muscle  to 
the  other  are  torn.  Sometimes  little  blood  vessels  running 
between  the  fibers  are  ruptured.  Occasionally  bundles  of 
fibers  or  even  whole  muscles  are  torn  by  their  own  con- 
traction. 

The  treatment  of  chemical  soreness  is  by  the  applica- 
tion of  heat,  massage,  and  more  muscular  work.  The 
treatment  of  mechanical  soreness  is  by  the  application  of 
heat,  massage,  and,  in  more  severe  cases,  a  short  rest  fol- 
lowed by  more  muscular  work. 

5.  Local,  Chemical,  Remote  Effects.  -  -  The  local,  chem- 
ical, and  remote  effects  of  muscular  exercise  are  best  under- 
stood by  reference  to  the  familiar  condition  of  the  mus- 
cles of  a  chicken.     The  leg  muscles  which  are  continually 
exercised  are  the  dark  meat,  strong,  filled  with  blood  and 
carbohydrate  food.     The  breast  muscles  which   are  only 
used  for  an   occasional   Hap   of  the  wings   are  pale   and 
anemic. 

6.  Immediate  General  Effects.  -  -  When  the  body  is  at 
rest,  that  is,  when  we  are  asleep,  its  processes  are  proceed- 
ing at  a  low  rate.     When  we  awake,  metabolism  increases 
and  all  the  tissues  of  the  body  become  more  active.    When 
we  exercise  mildly,  as  in  walking,  there  is  an  increase  of 


194         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

organic  activity,  particularly  in  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  The  whole  body  is  thrown  into  a  "state  of  exer- 
cise." With  a  further  increase  of  work,  as  in  running, 
great  circulatory  and  respiratory  changes  occur,  and  the 
activity  becomes  so  great  that  it  cannot  be  long  continued. 

7.  Nervous  Effects.  -  -  The  immediate  effects  of  muscu- 
lar contraction  are  felt  first  in  the  nervous  system;   for,  in 
stimulating  and  directing  contraction,  the  nerve  centers, 
cells,  and  fibers  are  exercised  just  as  well  as  the  muscles 
themselves.    In  fact  muscular  exercise  is  as  much  nervous 
exercise  as  it  is  muscular,  and  in  some  cases  is  more  so. 
The  latter  is  true  where  the  exercise  involves  new  condi- 
tions or  requires  much  care,  thought,  and  application,  but 
uses  only  small  muscles;   in  familiar  or  simple  exercises 
of  larger  muscles  it  is  less  nervous.     The  nervous  system 
usually  becomes  exhausted  before  the  muscles,  and  an  ath- 
lete frequently  stops  in  his  race  for  this  cause  and  not  from 
exhaustion  of  the  muscles. 

8.  Circulatory  Effects.  —  Since  the  muscles  in  their  con- 
traction use  the  food  and  oxygen  that  are  stored  in  them, 
there  is  always  an  immediate  need  for  more,  and  the  blood 
is  called  upon  to  supply  it.     Through  the  nervous  system 
the  heart  is  called  upon  at  once  to  beat  faster  to  supply 
the  extra  amount  of  blood  needed,  and  the  chest  is  called 
upon  to  breathe  more  deeply  so  that  the  lungs  may  be 


HYGIENIC  WORK  195 

filled  with  more  air  for  the  supply  of  oxygen.  At  the 
same  time  the  nervous  mechanism,  working  through  its 
complex  sympathetic  nervous  system,  causes  a  relaxation 
of  the  arteries  and  arterioles  in  and  around  the  contract- 
ing muscles,  and  a  contraction  of  the  arteries  and  veins  in 
the  internal  part  of  the  body,  particularly  in  the  abdo- 
men. This  gives  the  blood  less  space  in  the  blood  vessels 
of  the  inner  part  of  the  trunk  and  more  space  in  the  mus- 
cles of  the  outer  part  of  the  trunk  and  in  the  limbs.  The 
blood  is  thus  redistributed,  going  where  it  is  needed.  The 
blood  pressure  will  fall  or  rise,  depending  upon  whether 
the  greater  space  occasioned  by  the  relaxation  of  the  blood 
vessels  in  the  muscles'  of  the  outer  part  of  the  body  will 
contain  more  blood  than  is  squeezed  out  of  the  blood  ves- 

• 

sels  in  the  inner  part  of  the  trunk.  If  the  relaxation  of  the 
vessels  in  the  muscles  is  greater  than  the  blood  supply 
warrants,  the  blood  pressure  will  fall;  if  the  contraction 
within  the  trunk  supplies  more  blood  than  the  outer  vessels 
can  easily  accommodate,  the  blood  pressure  will  rise.  The 
blood  vessels  of  the  abdomen  are  capacious,  and  while 
they  contract  at  the  beginning  of  the  exercise  they  may 
relax  later  from  fatigue  and  cause  the  pressure  to  fall. 
Fainting  from  exhaustion  is  caused  in  this  manner. 

In  a  person  in  good  health,  blood  pressure  usually  rises 
promptly  at  the  beginning   of  exercise  but  if  exercise  is 


196         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

continued  for  some  time,  blood  pressure  gradually  falls 
again  to  its  previous  point  or  lower.  Whether  or  not  the 
pressure  remains  up  or  falls  depends  upon  the  nature, 
intensity,  and  duration  of  the  exercise  and  the  physi- 
cal condition  of  the  person.  Bicycling  and  running 
will  raise  it;  walking,  especially  on  a  warm  day,  will 
lower  it. 

9.  Heart  Rate. -- Unless  the  exercise  is  very  mild  the 
heart  rate  is  increased,  though  in  some  cases  the  rate  may 
actually   be  lowered.     The   heart,   however,   always   dis- 
charges more  blood  at  each  beat.     The  increase  in  rate 
occurs  almost  at  once  and  is  greatest  in  one  unaccustomed 
to  exercise.     In  the  trained  athlete  the  heart  normally 
beats  slowly  from  fifty  to  sixty  beats  a  minute  and  when 
he  is  exercising  it  does  not  increase  its  rate  greatly.    After 
the  exercise  is  over  it  returns  quickly  to  its  previous  rate, 
while  in  the  case  of  the  untrained  or  of  one  who  has  exer- 
cised too  severely  for  his  strength,  the  heart  rate  remains 
rapid  much  longer. 

10.  Breathing.  -  -  Following  and  in  addition  to  the   in- 
crease in  the  heart  rate,  breathing  also   increases  both  in 
rate  and  amplitude.     The  movements  of  the   diaphragm 
are  increased  and  the  chest  wall,    which   previously  may 
have  been  almost  in  repose,  is  drawn  into  ample  rhythmic 
movement.      The    chest    itself    is    made    more    capacious. 


HYGIENIC   WORK  197 

This  not  only  causes  air  to  be  drawn  in  and  expelled  more 
frequently  and  in  larger  quantities,  but  also  causes  simi- 
lar increase  in  the  movement  of  the  blood.  As  the  air  is 
more  forcibly  sucked  in,  so  the  blood  is  more  forcibly 
drawn  from  the  abdomen  and  other  parts  of  the  body 
into  the  chest  and  assisted  in  its  flow  to  the  heart.  Its 
expulsion  by  the  heart  into  the  arteries  is  assisted  by  the 
contraction  of  the  chest.  This  causes  rhythmical  varia- 
tion in  the  blood  pressure  corresponding  to  the  move- 
ments in  breathing.  In  this  manner  the  chest  acts  as  a 
blood  pump  assisting  the  circulation. 

11.  Arteries.  -  -  The  arteries  share  in  the  general  effects 
of  exercise,  expanding  as  the  stream  of  blood  and  the 
pressure  within  them  become  greater.  When  the  heart 
beats,  the  walls  are  stretched,  compressed,  and  become 
thinner.  Between  beats  they  contract  again,  sometimes 
to  a  smaller  caliber  than  before,  thus  aiding  the  circula- 
tion as  if  they  were  accessory  pumps.  Incidentally  the 
arterial  walls  are  kneaded  and  massaged  just  as  the  mus- 
cles are  massaged  by  their  own  exercise.  It  will  be  seen, 
therefore,  that  exercise  brings  into  action  many  factors 
which  assist  the  heart  in  carrying  on  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  more  vigorously  than  before.  The  rhythmic  pump- 
ing action  of  the  muscles,  the  chest,  and  the  arteries  are 
combined  to  aid  in  increasing  the  flow  of  blood. 


198         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

12.  Adjustment.  -  -  Vigorous  exercise  makes  a  call  upon 
the  various  parts  of  the  body  system  for  vital  action  and 
mutual  adjustments.    At  the  beginning  these  adjustments 
are  not  coordinated;   for  instance,  after  the  first  few  hun- 
dred yards  of  a  mile  race  the  runner  experiences  consider- 
able discomfort.    AYlien,  however,  the  intricate  circulatory 
mechanism  has  become  adjusted  to  its  high  plane  of  activity, 
a  feeling  of  ease  comes  to  the  runner.     This  is  what  is 
called  second  wind.    A  similar  period  of  discomfort  comes 
after  the  end  of  the  race  and,  in  fact,  at  the  termination 
of  any  vigorous  exercise.    This   is  why  the  runner  stays 
on  his  feet  and  walks  about  after  the   race  is  over,   and 
why  the  gymnastic  lesson  should  be  ended  with  a  short 
series  of  mild  movements. 

13.  General   Remote   Effects.  —  After   the  exercise   is 
over,  breathing  and  circulation  return  to  normal  and  the 
muscles  are  at  rest.     For  a  long  time,  however,  the  ar- 
teries in  the  muscles  are  dilated,  and  are  engaged  in  bring- 
ing to  the  muscles  the  nourishment  which  they  need,  and 
in  repairing  worn  out  tissue  while  the  veins  carry  away 
waste  products.     This  activity  gives  the  clue  to  the  vari- 
ous other  processes  which  are  going  on  in  the  rest  of  the 
body,  as  a   result   of  the  exercise.     To  supply  the  addi- 
tional nourishment  needed  the  blood  calls  upon  the  liver, 
the  great  storehouse  of  food,  and  the  stomach  and  intes- 


HYGIENIC   WORK  199 

tines  as  well,  for  a  renewed  supply.  Thereupon  vigorous 
activity  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  hunger  ensues,  and 
the  whole  digestive  tract  becomes  alert  and  active.  This 
is  a  condition  of  health  which  shows  up  in  sharp  contrast 
to  the  torpid  state  of  an  alimentary  tract  continually  burd- 
ened with  unearned  food  and  never  called  upon  to  re- 
spond to  the  vigorous  demands  of  exercise. 

The  kidneys,  the  skin,  and  the  lungs  are  each  called 
upon  by  exercise  to  take  out  of  the  blood  the  increased 
burden  of  waste  material  caused  by  physical  exertion,  and 
to  relieve  the  body  of  the  accumulation  of  these  poisons. 
Thus  these  organs  are  thrown  into  a  state  of  heightened 
activity  which  stimulates  them  and  improves  their  condi- 
tion just  as  surely  as  the  muscles  are  stimulated  and  im- 
proved by  being  exercised. 

The  rest  of  the  body  —  nervous  system,  bones,  ligaments, 
and  organs  of  special  sense  —  is  in  general  stimulated  by 
the  increased  speed  of  circulation  and  the  improvement 
in  nutrition. 

Thus  the  whole  body  is  stimulated,  refreshed,  and  nour- 
ished as  a  result  of  exercise.  Every  tissue  is  given  a  ten- 
dency toward  health,  and  a  feeling  of  well-being  arises. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  there  is  another 
side  to  the  matter.  Exercise  continued  too  long  with  too 
brief  intervals  for  rest  and  reconstruction  of  the  tissues 


200         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF   PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

will  tear  down  the  body  and  make  it  less  strong.  Over- 
work causes  serious  harm  because  it  injures  the  very  ma- 
chinery of  repair. 

It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  guard  against  overexercise, 
overwork,  and  overfatigue,  not  only  in  physical  training 
but  in  all  of  life's  activities. 

14.  Massage.  —  Muscular  exercise  moves  various  body 
parts  and  oftentimes  one  part  of  the  body  is  brought  into 
physical  contact  with  another.  This  occurs  when  joints 
are  fully  flexed  as  flexing  the  thigh  of  the  body.  In  this 
exercise  the  parts  in  question  are  mechanically  compressed 
and  if  it  is  done  rhythmically,  we  have  virtually  a  mas- 
sage. 

Many  exercises,  such  as  running,  jumping,  charging, 
and  dancing,  jar  the  body.  In  fact,  there  are  very  few 
exercises  involving  change  of  place  or  base  which  do  not 
do  so.  This  jarring  also  stimulates  the  whole  body  and 
its  effect  upon  the  abdominal  organs  is  particularly  bene- 
ficial and  important.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  a  very 
large  part  of  the  benefits  of  exercise  results  from  the 
stimulation  in  this  manner,  of  the  cells  of  the  body.  This 
principle  is  an  important  one  to  be  considered  in  the 
selection  of  exercises. 


HYGIENIC  WORK  201 

IV.       HYGIENIC    EXERCISES 

1.  The  Specific  Purpose  of  Hygienic  Exercises.  -  -  Dur- 
ing life  the  body  is  never  wholly  inactive;    even  in  sleep 
its  physiological  processes  go  on  in  proportion  to  its  ac- 
tivity.    A  scale  for  measuring  body  activity  can  be  con- 
structed as  indicated  by  the  diagram  on  page  202. 

All  of  our  physical  training  exercises  correspond  to 
types  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  and  most  of  them  to  types  4  and  5. 
The  varying  heights  of  the  columns  indicate  approxi- 
mately the  rate  of  physiological  activity.  Above  the  line, 
work  exceeds  repair,  and  we  may  call  type  5  and  6  a 
"state  of  exercise"  and  types  1,  2,  and  3  a  "state  of  rest," 
although  the  terms,  rest  and  exercise,  are  always  relative. 

We  have  a  sense  of  exercise  when  we  sit  up  after  a 
period  of  illness,  which  means  progressing  from  type  2  to 
type  3.  We  have  a  sense  of  rest  when  sitting  down  after 
walking,  or  when  we  begin  to  walk  after  running.  Hence 
rest  is  experienced  in  change  made  in  going  down  the 
scale  —  exercise,  in  change  made  in  going  up  the  scale. 

This  diagram  is  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  bringing 
clearly  before  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  the  thought  that 
exercise  is  a  normal  variation  of  physiological  process. 

2.  Formal  vs.  Informal.  —  Both  formal  scientific  gym- 
nastic exercises  done  to  command  and  informal  exercises, 
such  as  games  and  athletic  activities,  are  appropriate  to 


202         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

the   purpose.     Formal   exercises   have   the    advantage   of 
definite  construction  and  prescription,  and  dosage  is  al- 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  EXERCISES  ACCORDING  TO  THEIR  PHYSIOLOGICAL 

INTENSITY     (METABOLISM) 
100, 


Sleeping  Recumbent  Standing  Walking  Running  Fighting 

(Minimal)  (Maximal) 

12345  6 

ways  under  control,  that  is,  the  quantity  may  easily  be 
adapted  to  the  need.     They  are  less  interesting  and  less 


HYGIENIC   WORK  203 

likely  to  be  used  habitually  in  after  life,  and  yet  this  after- 
use  is  most  important. 

The  recreative  or  informal  exercises,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  the  advantage  of  being  natural.  They  normally  in- 
volve many  sets  of  muscles,  and  they  are  interesting  and 
are,  therefore,  much  more  likely  to  be  continued  in  use.  For 
this  reason  we  make  generous  use  of  mimetic  exercises.  It 
is,  however,  more  difficult  to  control  the  dosage  of  these 
exercises. 

V.       SELECTION    OF    EXERCISES 

1.  Rhythm.  -  -  Hygienic  exercises   should   be    rhythmic, 
consisting  of  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the 
muscles.     This,  as  we  have  seen,  aids  the  circulation,  as 
the  muscle  acts  as  an  accessory  circulation  pump.     Static 
contraction  of  the  muscle,  it  will  be  recalled,  interferes 
with  circulation. 

2.  Use  of  Large  Muscles.  -  -  Large  muscles  and   large 
muscle  groups  should  be  exercised  in  preference   to  small 
ones  because  a  single  contraction  of  a  large  muscle  equals 
many  contractions  of  a  smaller  muscle,  and  since  each  con- 
traction requires  an  effort  of  will,  the  single  contraction  of 
a  large  muscle  is  much  more  economical  in  nervous  energy. 

3.  Simplicity. -- Hygienic  exercises    should    be    simple 
and  wdl  known,,  and  should  require  very  little  nerve  strain 


204         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

and  conscious  attention,  for  it  is  the  exercise  of  the  mus- 
cles we  wish,  and  not  the  exercise  of  the  nervous  system. 

4.  Repetition.  —  Many  repetitions  of  moderate  muscu- 
lar contraction  will  produce  greater  physiological  results 
rather  than  a  few  heavy  contractions.    There  is  a  moder- 
ate weight  against  which  a  muscle  contracts  at  best  ad- 
vantage.    This  is  known  as  the  normal  load.     The  best 
physiological  results  can  be  obtained  by  exercise  with  this 
load. 

5.  Amplitude.  -  -  It  is  best  to  have  a  large  sweeping 
movement  which    gives    a   complete   contraction    of   the 
muscles.     This   provides    the    best    circulatory    pumping 
effect  and  also  muscular  massage,  although  the  most  foot 
pounds  of  work  can  be  done  by  a  muscle  if  the  move- 
ment is   limited   to   the   middle   of   the  total  arc  of  the 
movement. 

6.  Speed.  --  Hygienic  exercises  should  be  of  moderate 
speed.     If  they  are  very  fast  the  contraction  of  the  an- 
tagonistic muscles  controlling  the  movement  increase  the 
work  greatly  and  the  nerve  strains  are  likely  to  be  ex- 
treme thus  reducing  the  value  of  the  exercise. 

7.  Mechanical  Jar.  -  -  To  a  moderate  degree  hygienic 
exercise  should  provide  for  mechanical  jar  like  that  occa- 
sioned by  running  and  jumping,  because  of  its  stimulat- 
ing effect  upon  the  body. 


HYGIENIC  WORK  205 

8.  Summary.  —  An  hygienic  exercise  is  typically  a  sim- 
ple rhythmic  movement  of  large  muscles,  of  large  range, 
of  moderate  speed,  easy,  well  known,  and  often  repeated. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  a  large  variety.  A  few  exercises 
well  learned  will  answer  all  purposes.  The  best  hygienic 
exercises  are  the  simplest  and  these  are  racially  old  coor- 
dinations, used  in  original  form  or  modified  slightly  to 
serve  gymnastic  purposes. 

VI.       VARIETIES    OF    HYGIENIC    EXERCISES 

1.  Running. -- Running  meets  all  the  requirements  of 
hygienic  exercise.  It  is  natural,  simple,  rhythmic,  in- 
volves large  masses  of  muscles  and  is  easily  controlled. 
It  should  be  used  briefly  in  some  form  in  the  introductory 
part  of  the  lesson  and  again  in  the  hygienic  section. 
Every  child  should  learn  to  run  at  an  early  age  and 
should  be  able  to  run  continuously  at  a  slow  rate  for  fif- 
teen or  twenty  minutes  without  undue  fatigue.  Every 
person  should  retain  this  ability  up  to  old  age,  for  running 
should  be  practiced  in  some  form  two  or  three  times  a 
week  up  to  the  age  of  sixty. 

In  the  introductory  section  of  the  lesson,  running  can 
be  changed  into  many  varieties  of  skipping,  hopping,  and 
simple  dance  steps.  It  should  not  occupy  more  than  one 
third  of  the  time  devoted  to  introductory  work.  A  sim- 


206         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

pie  pleasing  form  of  hopping  is  as  follows:  Hop  in  place, 
eight  steps  left  foot,  eight  steps  right  foot;  four  left,  four 
right;  two  left,  two  right;  run  four  steps  to  a  halt.  In 
the  hygienic  section,  running  should  take  a  prominent 
place  in  at  least  three  of  the  five  weekly  periods.  Chil- 
dren should  be  trained  to  run,  gradually  increasing  the 
time  allotted  to  such  training  from  fifteen  seconds  of  the 
lesson  to  four  and  five  minutes.  Following  the  Boy  Scout 
method,  one  can  run  one  hundred  steps  and  then  walk 
one  hundred  steps.  The  running  exercise  may,  however, 
be  varied  by  raising  the  knees  high,  taking  a  longer  stride, 
lifting  the  heels  up  behind,  and  the  like.  The  runner 
should  be  carefully  safeguarded  against  overdoing.  It  is 
very  necessary  that  the  teacher  should  know  that  no 
child  is  suffering  from  heart  disease  or  hyperthyroidism. 

2.  Trunk  Exercises. -- Next  to  running,  trunk  bend- 
ing and  trunk  twisting  are  the  most  important  of  hygienic 
exercises:  firstly,  because  of  their  direct  effect  upon  the 
abdominal  contents  in  squeezing  and  massaging  them: 
and  secondly,  because  of  their  strengthening  effect  on  the 
lower  abdominal  wall  and  because  they  aid  greatly  in 
keeping  the  abdominal  contents  held  up  against  the  force 
of  gravity.  These  two  elements  should  be  kept  in  mind 
in  the  selection  of  exercises. 

Trunk  bending  forward,  for  hygienic  purposes,  is  best 


HYGIENIC   WORK  207 

when  done  completely,  that  is,  including  flexion  of  the  hips 
and  touching  finger  tips  to  the  toes.  Trunk  bending  to 
the  right  and  left  can  be  made  more  effective  by  touching 
the  finger  tips  to  the  outside  of  the  knee.  Trunk  bending 
backward  should  consist  of  an  extension  of  the  spine,  with 
the  chest  held  high;  the  hips  should  bend  very  little  and 
the  trunk  should  be  bent  backward  only  by  bending  the 
dorsal  spine  and  lifting  the  chest.  This  decreases  the  am- 
plitude of  the  movement  and  limits  hygienic  results  to 
the  part  to  be  benefited  thereby. 

It  is  our  purpose  to  make  all  movements  ample.  For 
this  reason  we  seek  to  provide  an  objective  termination. 
For  instance,  as  suggested  above,  in  trunk  bending  for- 
ward, the  finger  tips  should  touch  the  toes  or  the  floor;  in 
trunk  bending  sideways,  the  knees.  Unless  this  is  done, 
the  pupils  are  likely  to  slight  the  movement,  and  little  ex- 
ercise results.  This  principle  should  be  used  throughout 
the  whole  of  hygienic  work. 

The  best  abdominal  work  is  done  by  lying  on  the  back 
and  raising  the  legs,  by  rising  to  a  sitting  posture  with 
the  feet  held  in  a  fixed  position,  by  inverted  "bicycle 
riding,"  or  by  lying  on  the  side  and  using  a  walking 
movement. 

3.  Trunk  Twisting.  -  -  Trunk  twisting  should  always  be 
done  with  a  hi»ii  chest  and  a  contracted  lower  abdomen. 


208         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

It  is  best  done  with  hands  on  hips,  using  the  weight  of  the 
arm  to  increase  the  load  to  be  moved,  or  even  with  a  wide 
base  and  the  arms  stretched  to  the  side.  Various  combi- 
nations of  trunk  bending  and  twisting  are  valuable.  Chop- 
ping with  a  downward  stroke  or  cutting  as  if  chopping  the 
base  of  a  tree  are  mimetic,  interesting,  and  especially  use- 
ful. It  is  usually  preferable  to  do  trunk  twisting  exercises 
with  the  feet  spread  apart. 

4.  Knee  Bending  and  Charging.  -  -  These  exercises  use 
the  large   muscle  masses   of  the  thighs.      Knee   bending 
should  always  be  used  with  caution  but  when  used  should 
be  full  and  rhythmic,  the  student  sitting  on  his  heels  mo- 
mentarily on  each  count.    To  injure  this,  the  thumbs  are 
clasped  behind  and  the  finger  tips  stretched  downward  so 
as  to  touch  the  heels  at  each  effort.     This  is  the  form  of 
knee  bending  that  was  put  into  the  two  minute  setting- 
up  exercise  taught  in  the  public  schools  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  because  the  children  previously  had  performed  the 
exercise  only  perfunctorily.    Charging  or  lunging  provides 
an  element  which  can  be  used  in  exercises  to  add  to  their 
hygienic  value. 

5.  Dosage. --It  is  a  matter  of  prime  importance  for 
the  teacher  to  realize  that  he  can  fatigue  and  exhaust  his 
class  and  do  them  serious  damage  by  overexercise.    Against 
this  he  must  continually  guard  himself.    In  the  older  days 


HYGIENIC  WORK  209 

it  was  customary  in  physical  training  for  the  new  teacher 
to  impress  his  class  with  his  importance  by  giving  them 
such  severe  work  that  they  became  exhausted,  stiff,  and 
lame.  This  may  be  good  psychology,  but  it  is  dangerous 
physical  training. 

Dosage  can  be  increased  by  increasing  the  number  of 
muscles  involved,  by  increasing  the  weight  moved  (whether 
it  be  a  part  of  the  body  or  an  additional  weight  such  as  a 
dumbbell),  by  increasing  the  leverage  of  the  weight,  by 
extending  the  number  of  repetitions  of  the  movement, 
and  by  increasing  the  speed.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the 
teacher  however,  as  a  rule,  not  to  increase  the  severity  of 
the  work  itself,  but  rather  to  decrease  it  so  that  it  may  be 
continued  without  harm  for  an  appropriate  length  of  time. 

It  is  advisable  to  devise  exercises  which  contain  both  a 
heavy  and  a  light  hygienic  element  as  for  example: 

Exercise  1 
Heavy     1.    Touching  finger  tips  to  toes. 

2.    Hands  on  hips. 
Light       3.    Stretching  arms  sideways. 

4.    Hands  on  hips. 

Exercise  2 
Heavy     1.    Deep  knee  bending. 

2.    Knees  stretching. 
Light       3.    Stretching  arras  upward. 

4.    Hands  on  hips. 


210         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

In  these  exercises  the  hard  work  -  -  trunk  bending  and 
knee  bending  -  -  is  alternated  with  the  milder  effort,  arm 
stretching.  This  is  the  typical  formation  of  the  four 
count  hygienic  exercise  and  it  should  be  used  as  a  stand- 
ard procedure.  Exercises  of  two  counts  with  nothing  but 
hard  work  are  to  be  used  with  caution. 

This  gives  an  opportunity  also  to  insert  in  the  four 
count  exercise  an  element  such  as  arms  upward  stretch- 
ing which  acts  as  an  extension  element,  and  thus  lifts  the 
chest  and  head  after  the  trunk  has  been  compressed  in  the 
flexion  movement.  This  element  helps  posture. 

By  using  double  counting,  giving  two  counts  to  each 
movement  as  explained  in  the  chapter  on  "Commands," 
the  speed  of  the  exercise  is  diminished  without  decreasing 
its  interest. 

The  number  of  repetitions  of  each  exercise  will  depend 
upon  its  nature  and  severity.  As  a  rule  there  should  be  a 
period  of  a  few  moments  between  each  exercise.  At  times, 
however,  if  the  exercises  are  not  too  severe,  it  is  of  advan- 
tage to  go  directly  from  one  to  another  in  a  series  which 
may  be  learned  and  formed  into  a  "drill."  Since  these 
exercises  are  rhythmic,  they  may  be  done  to  music  with 
advantage,  observing  the  caution,  however,  that  the  per- 
formance should  never  be  allowed  to  become  perfunctory. 


CHAPTER  XI 

RECREATIVE  WORK 

Under  the  title  of  recreative  work  are  included  all 
forms  of  natural  exercises,  such  as  play,  games,  folk  and 
other  kinds  of  gymnastic  dancing,  and  athletic  games  and 
contests  of  all  kinds.  These  are  nature's  own  forms  of 
training.  They  provide  educational  and  hygienic  results 
of  their  own  peculiar  kind  and  they  add  to  these  their 
great  services  in  social  training.  They  are  productive  of 
enjoyment  and  happiness. 

No  physical  training  period  is  complete  without  its 
recreative  features,  which  appropriately  come  at  the  end 
of  the  lesson.  It  is,  sometimes,  good  practice  to  have 
physical  training  periods  devoted  wholly  to  recreative  ac- 
tivities. These  exercises  are  so  varied  and  important  that 
it  is  impossible  to  treat  of  them  adequately  in  this  volume. 
The  student  will,  however,  find  a  multitude  of  textbooks 
covering  this  diverse  and  important  field. 


211 


APPENDIX   I 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

The  following  pages  contain  the  general  directions  which  are  given 
to  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools  of  the  city  of  New  York  and  are 
intended  to  exemplify  the  methods  indicated  in  the  foregoing  part  of 
this  book.  Besides  this,  they  will,  it  is  hoped,  exemplify  the  princi- 
ples of  clearness,  brevity,  and  completeness  hitherto  set  forth.  It  has 
also  seemed  worth  while  to  include  those  general  directions  which  ap- 
ply to  all  physical  training  lessons  both  in  the  classroom  and  gym- 
nasium, together  with  sample  lessons  of  present  usage. 

These  directions  may  serve  as  models  or  incentives  for  supervisors 
and  city  superintendents  in  preparing  similar  instructions. 

INTRODUCTION 

1.  Physical  Training  includes  the  two  minute  drill,  formal  gymnas- 
tics, directed  recreation,  games,  athletics,  folk  dances,  recesses, 
instruction  in  hygiene,  the  daily  morning  hygiene  inspection,  the 
observation   for   physical   disabilities   and   signs   of   illness,   and 
cooperation  with  the  medical  inspector  and  nurse. 

2.  The  purpose  of  physical  training  is  (1)  to  obtain  good  posture, 

(2)  to  make  pupils  alert,  accurate,  and  graceful  in  movement, 

(3)  to  render  them  vigorous  and  able  to  endure,  (4)  to  teach  them 
forms  of  recreation  for  use  in  after  life,  (5)  to  teach  the  laws  of 
health  for  the  immediate  purpose  of  success  in  athletics,  and  the 
ultimate  purpose  of  establishing  a  lifelong  habit  of  good  hygiene. 

3.  These  results  are  sought  separately  in  the  appropriate  sections  of 
the  lesson  designated  for  their  attainment:  (1)     Corrective  Exer- 
cises, for  good  posture,  (2)  Educational  Exercises,  for  alertness  and 

213 


214         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

accuracy,  (3)  Hygienic  Exercises,  for  vigor  and  endurance,  (4) 
Recreative  Exercises,  for  instruction  in  play  and  enjoyment  in  its 
practice. 

4.  The  first  task  of  the  teacher  in  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  is  to 
study  its  various  parts  and  to  aim  at  a  thorough  understanding 
as  to  how  the  desired  results  are  to  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  the 
exercises. 

5.  The  teacher  should  learn  the  exercises  herself  and  practice  giving 
the  appropriate  commands,  always  keeping  in  mind  the  results 
to  be  obtained. 

6.  The  teacher  also  should  keep  in  mind  that  the  exercise  is  not  an 
end  in  itself.    It  is  only  a  means  of  obtaining  the  desired  results; 
i.e.,  good  posture,  alertness,  accuracy,  recreation,  and  endurance. 

7.  The  teacher  should  make  perfectly  clear  to  the  pupils  the  results 
desired,   and  the  pupils  should  become  interested  in  obtaining 
them.     They  should  take  a  pride  in  their  own  performance  and 
in  the  work  of  the  class,  and  continually  strive  to  improve.     The 
mere  announcement  of  the  purpose  as  indicated  in  the  lessons  is 
insufficient.     The   matter   should   be   thoroughly  explained   and 
understood,  and  kept  continually  in  mind. 

8.  The  teacher  should  carefully  study  the  general  instructions  with 
regard  to  Response  and  Rhythmic  Commands,   Good  Posture, 
Educational  Results,  and  Directed  Recreation. 

9.  The   teacher   should   seek   every   available   opportunity  to   give 
physical  training  out  of  doors. 

10.  Coats  and  sweaters  should  be  removed  before  exercising  in  the 
classroom  or  gymnasium. 

11.  Pupils  should  be  urged  to  practice  the  formal  exercises  at  home  for 
at  least  five  minutes  night  and  morning. 


APPENDIX  I  215 

RESPONSE  COMMANDS 

Response  commands  are  used  in  the  introductory  part  of  the  lesson 
and  only  for  corrective  and  educational  exercises.  They  should  train 
for  alertness,  accuracy,  and  inhibition.  The  teacher  should  see  that 
these  results  are  obtained  whenever  responsive  commands  are  used. 

The  response  command  has  three  parts  as  follows: 

1.  PREPARATORY  PART. 

a.  The  preparatory  part  of  the  command  contains  a  brief  de- 
scription of  the  exercise.     Its  purpose  is  to  tell  the  pupils  exactly 
what  is  to  be  done. 

b.  If  necessary,  the  teacher  should  fully  describe  and  demon- 
strate a  new  exercise  before  giving  the  command.     When  the  pupils 
know  what  is  to  be  done  there  should  be  no  need  of  further  dem- 
onstration;  the  command  should  be  sufficient. 

c.  The  teacher's  voice  should  be  clear  and  stimulating  and  her 
manner  interested  and  alert. 

d.  When  the  exercise  is  thoroughly  learned  the  preparatory 
part  is  omitted  and  the  commands,  ONE!  -  -  TWO!  - 
THREE!  -          -  FOUR!  etc.,  are  sufficient. 

2.  PAUSE. 

a.  After  the  preparatory  part,  the  teacher  should  pause  for 
one   or   two   seconds   before   giving   the  executive   command.     A 
breath  taken  at  this  time  will  prevent  the  neglect  of  the  pause  and 
will  add  force  to  the  executive  command. 

b.  The  pause  must  be  varied  in  each   successive  command. 
The  pupils  should  never  know  when  the  executive  command  will 
be  given.      A  neglect  of  this  rule  destroys  alertness  and  inhibition. 
The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  FACING,  when  the  pauses 
may  be  equal,  to  establish  the  rhythm  of  the  movement. 

3.  EXECUTIVE  PART. 

This  is  the  signal  to  move.     It  should  be  clear,  decisive,  and 
stimulating. 


216         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Example 

Preparatory  Part  Pause  Executive  Part 

Thrusting  arms  sideways  ONE! 

Hands  on  hips  PLACE ! 

RHYTHMIC  COMMANDS 

Rhythmic  commands  are  used  in  teaching  hygienic  exercises. 
The  purpose  of  hygienic  exercises  is  to  develop  physical  endurance 
and  to  provide  vigorous  stimulation  of  the  heart  and  lungs. 
The  Rhythmic  Command  has  four  parts  as  follows: 

1.  PREPARATORY  PART. 

The  preparatory  part  of  the  command  contains  a  brief 
description  of  the  exercise.  Its  purpose  is  to  tell  the  pupils 
exactly  what  is  to  be  done. 

2.  SETTING  THE  RHYTHM. 

This  insures  alert  attack  and  uniform  rhythm. 

3.  EXECUTIVE  PART. 

This  is  the  signal  to  move.  The  command  BEGIN!  should 
be  given  in  a  clear,  decisive,  and  stimulating  tone. 

4.  COUNTING. 

The  purpose  of  counting  is  to  keep  the  proper  rhythm  and  to 
stimulate  vigorous  performance. 

METHOD    OF    TEACHING    HYGIENIC    EXERCISES 

Describe  the  exercise,  using  response  commands. 

State  the  name  of  the  exercise. 

If  necessary,  the  teacher  may  demonstrate  the  exercise  to  the 
correct  rhythm. 

Set  the  rhythm,  1-2-3-4,  1-2-3-BEGIN!  The  counts  should  be 
given  once  or  twice,  while  the  pupils  mentally  enact  the  exercise. 


APPENDIX  I  217 

For  the  last  count,  the  command  BEGIN !  is  substituted,  and  the 
exercise  and  the  counting  begin  simultaneously. 

For  the  change  from  left  to  right,  the  teacher  should  substitute 
the  words  Same  RIGHT!  for  the  last  two  counts;  that  is  1-%-Same 
RIGHT! 

To  insure  a  uniform  halt,  change  the  tone  of  the  voice,  premonitory 
Class,  executive  HALT;  that  is  l-2-C7ass-HALT ! 

Do  not  count  to  16;  it  is  best  to  repeat  1-2-3-4.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  break  or  increase  the  rhythm. 

Counts  for  movements  of  extension;  that  is  thrusting  and  charging, 
particularly  those  for  thrusting  arms  upward,  should  be  emphasized. 

When  the  pupils  can  begin  the  exercise  simultaneously  and  con- 
tinue in  unison,  the  teacher  may  omit  the  preliminary  counting;  she 
should  then  proceed  as  follows:  (1)  State  the  name  of  the  exercise, 
(2)  Pause,  (3)  BEGIN! 

The  number  of  repetitions  of  each  exercise  should  be  from  four  to 
thirty-two,  depending  upon  the  amount  of  available  time,  the  fa- 
miliarity with  the  exercise,  and  the  endurance  of  the  class. 

THE  Two  MINUTE  DRILL 

Grades  from  3A  to  8B  Inclusive 

At  the  sound  of  the  bell,  monitors  should  open  windows  without 
command. 

Class  —  STAND !    (Face  windows  at  once  without  command.) 

1.  BREATHING.     4  times. 

IN!     Six  counts  for  inhalation. 
OUT!     Four  counts  for  exhalation. 
RIGHT  (LEFT)— FACE! 

2.  STRETCHING.     4  times. 

This  exercise  must  be  done  to  response  commands,  using  the 

cues  indicated. 
BEND!     Bend  the  trunk  forward,  touching  hands  to  toes. 


218         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

SHOULDERS!     Stand    erect,    touching    hands    at    sides    of 

shoulders  in  passing  to  the  next  position. 
STRETCH!     Stretch  the  arms  upward,  palms  toward  each 

other.     Do  not  bend  backward. 
HIGHER!     Make  an  effort  to  stretch  higher. 
DOWN!     Turn   hands   and   bring   arms    sideways   downward 

quickly,  without  noise.     If  the  room  is  too  crowded  for  the 

sideways  downward  movement,  the  arms  may  be  brought 

down,  close  to  the  body. 

3.  KNEE  BENDING.     (Thumbs    locked    behind    without    command.) 

8  times. 

This  exercise  should  be  taught,  using  the  cues  indicated.  When 
it  is  thoroughly  learned,  it  may  be  done  to  rhythmic  com- 
mands. 

DOWN !     Bend  the  knees  deeply. 

UP!     Stretch  the  knees  quickly. 

RIGHT !     (LEFT)  —  FACE ! 

4.  BREATHING.     4  times. 

IN!     Six  counts  for  inhalation. 
OUT!     Four  counts  for  exhalation. 
('/a**  — SIT! 

Coats  and  sweaters  should  be  removed  during  drill. 

The  first  two  minute  drill  devised  and  put  into  execution  was  prob- 
ably that  used  at  the  High  School  of  Commerce  by  the  author  in  1901 
at  the  suggestion  of  J.  J.  Sheppard,  the  Principal  of  the  school.  This 
suggestion  probably  inspired  Dr.  Luther  H.  Gulick,  who  shortly 
thereafter  introduced  the  drill  generally  into  the  New  York  City 
schools  in  its  present  substantial  form  which  is  described  above. 

The  author  has  also  devised  an  exercise  for  stretching  and  has  used 
it  successfully,  notably  in  the  cooperative  industrial  classes  of  the  city 
of  New  York.  This,  as  set  forth  below,  was  introduced  in  1910.  It 
may  be  substituted  for  the  stretching  exercise  indicated  in  the  preced- 
ing drill. 


APPENDIX  I  219 

STRETCHING    EXERCISE 

Hands  on  shoulders  —  PLACE ! 

Fists  tight. 

Full  breath. 

(Natural)     "  Noiv  —  S-T-R-E-T-C-H ! " 

Teacher  executes  movement  with  the  class  and  stretches  when  they 
do,  as  the  command  STRETCH!  is  given. 

This  is  the  normal  stretch  in  every  way.  The  pupils  twist  and 
turn  as  they  desire  at  the  same  time  stretching  the  arms  upward. 
They  should  enjoy  the  exercise  and  feel  better  for  doing  it. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  PROCEDURES  COMMON  TO  ALL  LESSONS 
IN  THE  GYMNASIUM 

Ready  for  physical  training  —  SIT!     (Trunk  erect.    Elevation  Cues.) 
Obtain  good  sitting  posture  before  standing  to  go  to  the  gymnasium. 
Class  —  STAND !     (For  alertness.) 

At  the  command  STAND!  the  pupils  should  take  their  pre- 
scribed places  in  the  aisles,  ready  for  marching. 
To  the  gymnasium  —  FORWARD  —  MARCH! 

Marching  to  the  gymnasium   should  be  done  with  precision 
and  dispatch.     Coats  should  be  left  in  the  classroom  or  removed 
in  the  gymnasium. 
Taking  distance  —  ONE !     TWO ! 

When  the  class  arrives  in  the  gymnasium  the  pupils  should  be 
at  full  arm  distance,  or  the  class  should  be  halted  and  full  arm 
distance    obtained    on    the   command,    Taking   distance  —  ONE! 
TWO! 
Marching  and  facing. 

Facing  to  the  right  (left]  by  counts  —  ONE!     TWO! 

Raise  slightly  the  left  heel  and  right  toe,  fiice  to  the  right, 
turning  on  the  right  heel,  assisted  by  a  slight  pressure  on  the  ball 
of  the  left  foot  — ONE! 

Place  the  left  foot  by  the  side  of  the  right  foot  —  TWO! 
Left  face  is  executed  on  the  left  heel  in  a  similar  manner. 


220         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Facing  about,  by  counts  —  ONE!     TWO! 

Place  the  toe  of  the  right  foot  about  a  half-foot  length  to  the 
rear  and  slightly  to  the  left  of  the  left  heel  without  changing  the 
position  of  the  left  foot  —  ONE ! 

Face  to  the  rear,  turning  to  the  right  on  the  left  heel  and  right 
toe  — TWO! 

When  the  facing  is  completed  the  heels  will  be  together.  There 
is  no  Left  about  face. 

The  above  commands  are  to  be  used  only  in  teaching  facing. 

The  usual  commands  are  Facing,  right,  (left)  —  FACE!  and  ABOUT 

-FACE!     The  movement  is  then  done  in  two  counts  without 

separate  commands.     When  the  pupils  know  what  is  desired  the 

word  facing  may  be  omitted. 

Mark  time  —  MARCH !     Class  —  HALT ! 

(From  marking  time,  halt  in  two  counts.)  The  foot  should  be 
raised  two  inches  from  the  floor,  knees  up  in  front,  body  erect, 
arms  swinging  at  the  sides  as  in  marching.  Use  this  to  develop 
rhythm,  accuracy,  alertness,  and  good  posture.  Avoid  stiffness  of 
the  arms  and  shoulders. 

Forward  —  MARCH!  should  be  taken  from  a  halt,  not  from 
marking  time. 

Forward  —  MARCH !     Class  —  HALT ! 

(From  marching,  halt  in  two  counts.)  At  the  command 
MARCH!  advance  the  left  foot  a  full  step  from  the  right,  the 
weight  of  the  body  resting  upon  it.  In  like  manner,  advance 
the  right  foot.  Swing  the  arms  naturally  (about  four  inches  for- 
ward and  three  inches  back  of  the  middle  line  of  the  body).  The 
teacher  should  secure  from  every  pupil  a  full  step  forward  at  the 
command  MARCH!  This  should  be  practiced  until  a  perfect 
response  is  obtained  from  the  entire  class. 

The  cadence  is  at  the  rate  of  120  steps  to  the  minute.  This  is 
known  as  quick  time. 

Double  time  —  MARCH !     Class  —  HALT ! 


APPENDIX   I  221 

If  at  a  halt,  at  the  first  command  shift  the  weight  of  the  body 
to  the  right  leg.  At  the  command  MARCH!  raise  the  forearms, 
fingers  closed,  to  a  horizontal  position  along  the  waistline,  and  take 
up  an  easy  run  with  the  step  and  cadence  of  double  time  (180  steps 
to  the  minute),  allowing  a  natural  swinging  motion  of  the  arms. 

If  marching  in  quick  time,  at  the  command  MARCH !  given  as 
either  foot  strikes  the  ground,  take  one  step  in  quick  time,  and 
then  step  off  in  double  time. 

To   resume    the    quick  time  give  the  command  Quick   time  — 
MARCH !     At  the  command  MARCH !  given  as  either  foot  strikes 
the  ground,  advance  and  plant  the   other    foot    in   double   time 
and  then  resume  the  quick  time,  dropping  the  hands  to  the  sides. 
This  change  is  made  in  two  counts. 

Double  time,  in  place  —  MARCH !     Class  —  HALT ! 

From  double  time  halt  in  two  counts  in  response  to  the  command, 
Class  —  HALT !  Drop  the  hands  to  the  sides  as  soon  as  the  halt  has 
been  made. 

Skipping  may  be  used  occasionally  instead  of  running. 

Counter  marching  (right  or  left)  —  MARCH ! 

Counter  marching  (right  or  left),  DOUBLE  TIME  — MARCH! 

Taking   apparatus  and  marching   to  floor  formation,   FORWARD  — 
MARCH! 

(With  alertness  and  accuracy.)  As  the  leader  takes  the  ap- 
paratus, the  command  Half  step  —  MARCH!  is  given,  so  that  the 
interval  of  marching  distance  shall  not  be  lost.  When  the  whole 
class  has  taken  the  apparatus,  the  command  Forward  —  MARCH ! 
is  given.  The  class  then  proceeds  at  full  step. 

Floor  Formation. 

From  the  single  file  formation,  the  first  four  pupils  should 
execute  a  flank  march  at  the  rear  of  the  room,  deploy  to  arm's 
length,  and  march  to  the  front  of  the  room.  Arriving  at  position, 
they  should  mark  time.  The  following  fours  should  execute  the 
movement  in  like  manner.  Both  the  ranks  and  files  should  be 
in  proper  alignment.  The  interval  between  ranks  should  be 


222         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

approximately  twice  full  arm  distance.    When  all  have  taken  their 
places,  give  the  command  Class  —  HALT ! 

The  above  method  of  floor  formation  is  typically  rapid  and 
definite.     It  may  be  varied  to  suit  conditions. 
Breathing  —  IN!     OUT!     (Facing  windows.) 

Inhalation  should  be  slow,  deep,  and  complete,  taking  5  or  6 
seconds;  exhalation  taking  3  or  4  seconds.  The  chest  should  not 
become  depressed  during  exhalation. 

Method  of  placing  apparatus  on  floor. 
Dumb-bells. 

Placing  apparatus  on  floor  —  ONE!    TWO! 

(1)  Turning    and    charging    directly    to    the   left,    place   bells 
(crossed)  on  the  floor,  in  front  of  the  left  foot  —  ONE! 

(2)  Return  to  standing  position  —  TWO ! 
Wands  or  Bar  bells. 

Placing  apparatus  on  floor  —  ONE!   TWO! 

(1)  Turning  and  charging  directly  to  the  left,  place  wand  or 
bar  bell  on  the  floor  —  ONE ! 

(2)  Return  to  standing  position  —  TWO! 

Method  of  taking  apparatus  from  the  floor. 

Taking  apparatus  from  floor  —  ONE !    TWO ! 
Reverse  the  above  procedure. 

Use  of  Wands  or  Bar  bells. 

The  wand  or  bar  bell  is  carried  in  the  right  hand  at  the  side, 
resting  against  the  front  of  the  shoulder. 
Wands  doirn—O^E\     TWO! 

Grasp  wand  at  shoulder  with  left  hand,  palm  front  —  ONE! 

Bring  wand  down  to  horizontal  position  in  front  of  thighs  — 
TWO! 
1 1  'a  n  ds  at  carry  —  ONE !     TWO ! 

Reverse  the  above  procedure. 

Monitors,  collect  apparatus  —  MARCH! 

Monitors  should  be  appointed  to  collect  the  apparatus  before 
the  running  and  recreative  exercises. 


APPENDIX   I  223 

POSTURE 

1.  GOOD  POSTURE 

Good  posture  is  the  best  adjustment  of  the  parts  of  the 
oody  to  each  other  and  the  body  as  a  whole  to  its  work.  While 
it  is  important  to  organic  health,  it  is  also  the  physical  expres- 
sion of  mental  alertness.  The  essentials  of  good  posture  are 
the  erect  head,  the  straight  trunk,  and  the  high  chest. 

Good  posture  is  a  matter  of  habit.  Special  attention 
should  be  given  to  it  when  pupil  is  standing  to  recite,  in 
marching,  and  during  the  whole  of  the  physical  training  period. 

To  obtain  good  posture,  pupils  must  become  aware  of  their 
defects,  must  be  able  to  correct  these  defects,  must  be  given 
exercises  to  strengthen  the  muscles  which  hold  the  body  erect, 
and  must  practice  good  posture  at  all  times. 

2.  POSTURE  TEST. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  term  the  teacher  should  examine 
the  posture  of  all  pupils  in  his  class.  This  is  best  done  by  a 
process  of  elimination  as  follows : 

The  pupil  must  show  his  ability  to  maintain  the  proper 
position  of  the  body  through  three  tests:  (1)  Standing;  (2) 
Marching;  (3)  Holding  the  arms  in  the  upward  stretch  posi- 
tion demonstrated  in  the  two  minute  drill.  Any  child  found  in 
poor  posture  during  any  part,  of  the  test  should  be  told  to  sit. 
The  pupils  standing  at  the  close  of  the  entire  test  form  Divi- 
sion I  for  posture;  the  others,  Division  II. 

Division  I  may  be  divided  into  two  groups  of  pupils,  those 
who  always  have  good  posture  and  those  who  have  sufficient 
endurance  to  pass  the  triple  test  but  do  not  maintain  good 
posture  at  all  times.  The  former  should  be  rated  A,  the 
latter  B. 

3.  GROUPING  FOR  THE  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  LESSON. 

Groups  I  and  II  should  be  separated  for  the  regular  physical 
training  lesson. 


224         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

4.  MONTHLY  TESTS  AND  RECORDS. 

The  posture  test  should  be  repeated  on  the  first  school  day 
of  each  month.  The  percentage  of  the  class  in  Group  I  should 
be  determined  on  the  basis  of  the  attendance  of  the  day.  To 
arouse  a  desire  for  improvement,  this  is  recorded  and  placed 
permanently  on  the  blackboard  with  the  records  of  preceding 
months. 

5.  CORRECTION  OF  DEFECTS. 

If  the  pupil  can  respond  properly  to  the  elevation  cues  he 
will  be  able  to  assume  good  posture.  The  teacher  should  give 
additional  instruction  to  all  pupils  who  cannot  assume  correct 
posture  at  will.  Such  pupils  should  receive  special  attention 
during  the  lesson  and  should  be  instructed  to  practice  the 
corrective  exercises  at  home.  The  special  teacher  may  be 
called  upon  for  assistance. 

6.  SITTING  POSTURE. 

a.  Ordinary  sitting  posture  is  a  resting  position,  hips  well 
back  on  the  seat,  the  back  against  the  back  of  the  seat,  trunk 
erect.     The  hands  may  be  placed  on  the  desk  or  grasping  the 
sides  of  the  seat,  but  never  behind  the  back. 

b.  For  physical  training  —  SIT!     The  pupils  sit  erect. 

c.  For  writing  —  SIT!      Pupils  sit  erect;  lean  forward  from 
the    hips     (trunk    straight).     See    directions    in    penmanship 
circular. 

d.  For  drawing  and  sewing,  the  ordinary  sitting  position  is 
used. 

e.  For  reading,  the  pupils  should  use  the  ordinary  position 
with  both  hands  on  the  desk  supporting  the  book. 

/.  Children  should  not  be  required  to  sit  absolutely  still  nor 
in  any  one  position  for  a  long  time.  There  should  be  a  change 
of  occupation,  and  they  should  be  permitted,  from  time  to  time, 
to  turn  to  the  right  Q?  left,  with  their  feet  in  the  aisle  and  their 
arms  resting  on  the  top  of  the  desk.  The  two  minute  drill 
provides  rest  and  should  never  be  neglected.  Pupils  in  the 


APPENDIX   I  225 

first  two  years  should  occasionally  be  allowed  to  lay  their  arms 
on  the  desk  and  their  heads  on  their  arms,  for  thorough  relaxa- 
tion. 

EDUCATIONAL  RESULTS 

1.  PURPOSE. 

The  results  desired  from  Educational  Exercises  are:  (1)  The 
learning  of  exercises  for  use  afterward  for  hygienic  or  other 
purposes,  (2)  The  training  of  pupils  in  alertness,  inhibition,  and 
accuracy.  It  is  essential  that  the  pupils  should  know  what 
results  are  desired  and  should  take  an  interest  and  pride  in 
obtaining  them. 

2.  METHOD. 

Educational  Exercises  are  invariably  done  to  response 
commands  and  the  teacher  should  carefully  study  the  state- 
ments relative  thereto. 

3.  TEACHING  EXERCISES. 

The  teacher  should  study  and  practice  the  exercise  before 
teaching  it  to  the  class.  She  should  then  be  prepared  to  insist 
upon  perfect  performance  of  the  pupils.  In  a  new  lesson  the 
exercises  should  be  taught  until  all  pupils  are  reasonably 
proficient. 

4.  INHIBITION. 

Inhibition  is  the  mental  ability  to  withold  from  action  until 
the  proper  time.  To  obtain  training  in  this,  the  teacher  should 
not  permit  any  pupil,  at  any  time,  to  begin  the  movement 
before  the  executive  part  of  the  command  is  given.  This  is 
accomplished  by  adherence  to  the  rule  that  the  pupil  should 
not  know  when  to  expect  the  signal  to  move,  and  is  insured  by 
varying  the  length  of  the  pause  in  the  command.  If  the  pupils 
err  in  this  regard,  they  should  be  recalled  to  position  and  the 
exercise  should  be  started  anew. 


226         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL   TRAINING 

5.  ALERTNESS. 

Alertness  is  shown  in  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  react  at  once 
to  the  executive  part  of  the  command.  This  depends  upon 
the  following: 

(1)  The  pupil's  understanding  that  quick  response  is  desired 

and  his  interested  endeavor  to  excel ; 

(2)  The  pupil's  knowing  exactly  what  to  do; 

(3)  Allowing  pupil   sufficient  time  to  prepare  himself  to 

execute  the  movement  —  this  is  insured  by  a  pause 
in  the  command  long  enough  for  adjustment; 

(4)  The  stimulus  of  the  teacher's  voice  giving  a  clear  and 

decisive  signal   to  move,   and  her  alert,   interested 
manner. 

If  the  pupils  err  in  not  simultaneously  beginning  the  exercise 
they  should  be  recalled  to  position  and  practiced  in  alertness. 

6.  ACCURACY. 

All  positions  should  be  accurate.  The  teacher  should 
correct  faulty  performance  of  individual  pupils  with  the  least 
possible  interruption  to  class  work.  The  pupils  should  take  a 
pride  in  accurate  performance  and  continually  endeavor  to 
improve. 

7.  ADDITIONAL  POINTS. 

Good  posture  should  be  insisted  upon  during  all  exercises. 
Elevation  cues  sh  mid  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  individual 
attention  should  be  given  to  pupils  in  special  need. 

All  extensor  positions,  such  as  thrusting  and  stretching, 
should  be  pressed  to  the  utmost. 

The  teacher  and  pupils  should  always  keep  in  mind  the 
results  to  be  obtained.  There  should  be  constant  reference 
to  these  and  a  continual  desire  to  improve.  Teachers  should 
guard  against  spending  much  time  in  talking,  for  this  lessens 
the  time  allotted  for  work. 


APPENDIX   I  227 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS 

One  or  more  assistants  to  principals  or  one  or  more  class  teachers, 
especially  qualified  in  this  subject  by  ability  or  training,  should  be 
assigned  by  the  principal  at  the  beginning  of  the  term  to  perform  the 
duties  listed  below. 

DUTIES. 

1.  To  visit  the  other  class  teachers  at  least  once  a  month,  in  order 

to  advise  and  assist  in  the  teaching  of  the  two  minute  drill, 
classroom  games,  recesses,  classroom  gymnastics,  athletics, 
folk  dances,  and  physical  training  exercises  in  the  gymnasium 
and  playground. 

2.  To  confer  with  the  special  teacher  at  the  beginning  and  at  the 

end  of  his  visit  to  the  school,  to  set  forth  the  needs  of  the 
school,  and  to  report  such  needs  to  the  principal. 

3.  To  be  responsible  for  the  care  of  the  physical  training  equipment. 

4.  To  hold  grade  or  department  conferences  at  the  call  of  the 

principal,   and   to   assist   the   special   teacher  in  arranging 
special  conferences  on  physical  training. 

5.  To  attend  all  general  meetings  of  the  physical  training  depart- 

ment and  to  relate  to  the  teachers  of  the  school  the  benefit 
of  the  instruction  received. 

6.  To  make  such  report,  or  reports,  as  may  be  required  by  the 

principal. 

NOTE:  The  principal  should  likewise  assign  similar  assistants 
to  principals  or  teachers  to  take  charge  of  hygiene,  whose  duties  shall 
be  the  same  as  the  duties  of  those  in  charge  of  physical  training. 


228         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 
TYPICAL  BEGINNING  LESSON  FOR  THE  CLASSROOM 

SIXTH    YEAR,    FREEHAND 

INTRODUCTORY  EXERCISES:  (Response  Commands.     For  mental  and 
physical  preparation  for  the  lesson.) 

See  "Directions  for  Procedures  Common  to  All  Lessons."     The 
class  should  be  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  items  under  this  head- 
ing. 
CORRECTIVE  EXERCISES:   (Elevation  Cues.   To  develop  good  posture.) 

A  Posture  Test  should  be  given  at  the  beginning  of  each  month. 
(See  Page  114.) 

To  get  good  posture  it  is  necessary  for  the  pupils  to  know  from 
experience  the  exact  position  desired  in  response  to  Elevation 
Cues.  These  are  always  to  be  used  while  the  static  contrac- 
tion is  held  for  the  purpose  of  lifting  and  straightening  the  body. 
They  should  be  given  with  meaning,  vigor,  and  discrimination. 

The  following  are  the  best: 

Head  —  UP!  LIFT  THE  HEAD! 

Chest  —  UP !  LIFT  THE  CHEST ! 

Wai*t  —  FLAT!  STRETCH  THE  KNEES! 

Weight  —  FORWARD!  STRETCH  THE  ANKLES! 

(if  necessary).  STAND  TALL! 

The  teacher  should  note  with  great  care  the  posture  of  each  pupil 
and  determine  what  improvement  is  necessary. 

Each  pupil  should  be  informed  of  his  defects  and  shown  how  to  correct 
them.  This  requires  constant  practice  and  much  individual 
attention.  Every  formal  exercise  should  start  and  finish  in 
the  correct  standing  position. 

Good  posture  without  rigidity  should  be  constantly  maintained. 

EDUCATIONAL    EXERCISES:     (Response    Commands.      For   alertness, 

inhibition,  and  accuracy.) 
Hands  to  left  foot;  trunk  erect,  hands  on  hips;  arms  sideways;  hands 

on  hips  —  PLACE! 
Bending  trunk  forward,  touching  hands  to  left  foot  —  ONE! 


APPENDIX  I  229 

Trunk  erect,  hands  on  hips  —  TWO ! 

Stretching  arms  sideways,  hands  height  of  eyes  (palms  up)  — 

THREE! 

Hands  on  hips  —  FOUR! 
4  times.    Same  — RIGHT!    ALTERNATE!    POSITION! 

HYGIENIC  EXERCISES:    (Rhythmic  Commands.    To  develop  physical 

endurance.) 
Double  time,  in  place  —  MARCH  !    Class  —  HALT  !    (180  steps 

to  the  minute.) 

From     running,    halt     in    two    counts.     Teach    the    rhythm 
before  starting  to  run.     Practice  for  accuracy  in  starting  and  halt- 
ing.    In  this  lesson  the  run  should  be  of  short  duration    but  re- 
peated 5  or  6  times.     Arms  should  be  half  bent,  but  not  rigid. 
Breathing  —  IN!      OUT!      4  to  8  times.     (Facing  windows.) 

Inhalation  should  be  slow,  deep,  and  complete,  taking  5  or  6 
seconds;  exhalation  taking  3  or  4  seconds.  The  chest  should  not 
become  depressed  during  exhalation. 

RECREATIVE  EXERCISES: 

Dances.     Ace  of  Diamonds;  Oranges  and  Lemons. 

Game.     Jump  the  Shot. 

Athletic  Period  and  Class  Athletics. 

TYPICAL   MID-TERM   LESSON    FOR    CLASSROOM    SHOWING 

PROGRESS 

SIXTH    YEAR,    FREEHANTD 

INTRODUCTORY  EXERCISES:    (Response  Commands.     For  mental  and 

physical  preparation  for  the  lesson.) 
Ready  for  physical  training  —  SIT!      (Trunk  erect.    Use  Elevation 

Cues.) 
Class  —  STAND!        (For   alertness.)        Taking   distance  —  ONE! 

TWO!     (Get  good  standing  posture.    Use  Elevation  Cues.) 
Marching  and  Facing.     Review. 
Breathing  —  IN!     OUT:     4  to  8  times.     (Facing  windows.) 


230         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

CORRECTIVE  EXERCISES:   (Elevation  Cues.   To  develop  good  posture.) 

Raising  arms  sideways  (palms  up) — RAISE!  (Use  Elevation 
Cues.) 

Hands  height  of  eyes,  palms  up  and  pressing  upward  (not  back- 
ward), carrying  chest  up,  straightening  spine. 

This  exercise  has  one  elevated  position,  which  is  held  from  3  to  7 
seconds,  while  the  teacher  urges  and  the  pupils  work  for 
elevation. 

POSITION! 

4  or  more  times. 

EDUCATIONAL  EXERCISES:    (Response  Commands.    For  alertness,  in- 
hibition, and  accuracy.) 

Raising  and  lowering  heels.  (To  strengthen  the  arch  of  the  foot.) 
Feet  parallel  and  six  inches  apart  —  PLACE! 

Raising   heels  —  ONE!      (Keep   the   weight   on   the   outer 
edges  of  the  feet,  and  raise  the  heels  high,  turning  the 
soles  inward.) 
Lowering  heels  —  TWO! 
6  or  8  times. 

Hands  ontside  of  left  foot;  trunk  erect,  hands  at  sides  of  shoulders; 
arms  upward. 
Hands  at  sides  of  shoulders  —  PLACE! 

Ticisting  and  bending  trunk  to  the  left,  touching  hands  outside 

of  left  foot  —  ONE! 

Trunk  erect,  facing  front,  hand*  at  xides  of  shoulders  —  TWO! 
Stretching  arms  upward  —  THREE! 
Hand*  at  side*  of  shoulders  —  FOUR! 
4  times.     Same  — RIGHT!    ALTERNATE!    POSITION! 

HYGIENIC  EXERCISES:    (Rhythmic  Commands.    To  develop  physical 

endurance.) 
Sitting  position  at  end  of  seat,  hands  on  shoulders  —  PLACE! 

Hands  to  toes;  trunk  erect,  hands  on  shoulders;  arms  upward  — 

BEGIN! 
4  or  more  times.     POSITION! 


APPENDIX   I  231 

Hands  at  sides  of  shoulders  —  PLACE ! 

Deep  knee  bending;  stretching  knees;  arms  upward  —  BEGIN! 

4  or  more  times.    POSITION ! 

Double  Time  —  Review. 

Hopping  —  8  times  on  each  foot  alternately. 

Breathing  —  IN!      OUT!      4  to  8  times.     (Facing  windows.) 

RECREATIVE  EXERCISES: 

Chinning:  crouching  start,  standing  start. 
Dances.     Highland  Schottische;  Black  Nag. 
Games.     Over  and  Under  Relay  (Boys). 

Arch  Ball  (Girls). 
Athletic  Period  and  Class  Athletics. 


APPENDIX  II 

HYGIENE 

Physical  training  is  not  only  physical  exercise.  It  includes  a 
number  of  health  procedures  as  indicated  below.  The  subsequent 
pages  are  an  outline  of  a  complete  system  for  the  care  of  the  health. 
It  was  planned  first  in  1912,  was  introduced  experimentally  into  the 
schools  in  1914,  and  was  finally  adopted  in  1917.  This  was  also 
the  first  time  that  the  daily  morning  hygienic  inspection  was  used  in  a 
school  system.  This  has  since  become  the  basis  of  the  more  objective 
instruction  in  hygiene. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  daily  routine.  It  is  important  that 
the  teacher  get  these  methods  in  a  simple  original  form.  She  can 
then  adapt  them  to  her  own  use  or  need. 

Lessons  in  hygiene  are  important,  though  far  less  important  than 
the  general  regulations  which  are  given  here.  The  sample  grade 
syllabus  on  page  237  indicates  the  method  of  development. 

INTRODUCTION 

SYLLABUS    IN    HYGIENE 

The  work  in  hygiene  in  the  elementary  schools  is  as  follows: 

1.  Hygiene  of  the  classroom. 

2.  Instruction  in  hygiene. 

3.  Inspection  of  pupils. 

4.  Observations  for  physical  disabilities. 

THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  CLASSROOM 
OBJECT: 

To  counteract   and  eliminate  the  health-depressing  influences  of 
school  life. 


APPENDIX   II  233 

METHOD  : 

1.  Seating:  The  teacher  should  seat  the  pupils  at  the  beginning  of 

the  term  with  regard  to  the  following  points: 

a.  Height:    Not  later  than  two  weeks  after  the  beginning 
of  the  term,  seats  should  be  adjusted  by  the  janitor  so 
that  the  pupil  can  sit  with  the  hips  well  back,  the  thighs 
resting  on  the  seat,  and  the  feet  flat  upon  the  floor.    The 
desk  and  seat  should  also  be  so  adjusted  that  the  proper 
writing  position  can  be  taken  —  i.e.,  hips  back,  body 
straight  and  inclined  forward  (never  flexed  or  twisted), 
forearms  resting  on  the  desk  near  the  edge.     The  eyes 
should  not  be  less  than   10  inches  nor  more  than   16 
inches  from  the  writing. 

b.  Defects  in  vision  and  hearing:  These  defects  should  be  dis- 
covered early  so  that  afflicted  children  may  be  placed 
at  a  proper  distance  from  the  blackboard  and  teacher's 
desk.     To  this  end  the  reverse  side  of  the  pupil's  class 
record  card  may  be  consulted. 

2.  Light:  Light  should  fall  from  the  left  and  from  behind.     Shades 

should  be  so  adjusted  that  the  sunshine  shall  not  fall  upon 
the  book  or  work.  There  should  not  be  two  consecutive 
periods  of  close  eye  work.  The  eyes  should  never  be  closer 
than  10  inches  to  the  work,  14  inches  is  preferable,  and 
should  be  raised  occasionally  from  the  work.  Books  should 
be  held  at  a  right  angle  to  the  line  of  vision,  and  off  the 
desk,  though  the  hands  may  rest  upon  the  desk. 

3.  Temperature:  The  classroom  temperature  should  be  maintained 

between  65°  and  68°  F.  when  artificial  heat  is  used.  An 
accurately  registered  thermometer  should  be  attached  to 
the  teacher's  desk  and  an  hourly  record  of  the  temperature 
should  be  made.  If  the  temperature  is  not  satisfactory, 
the  principal  should  be  notified  at  once. 

4.  Ventilation:   A  flag  or  other  indicator  should  be  placed  in  front 

of  the  air  intake.  When  this  shows  a  deficient  supply  of 
air,  the  fact  should  be  immediately  reported  to  the  principal. 


234         THE  PEDAGOGY   OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Windows  should  be  opened  from  the  top  and  bottom  during 
every  class  period,  during  the  two  minute  drill,  and  the 
regular  gymnastic,  play,  and  singing  periods;  but  on  very 
cold  days  they  may  be  closed  before  the  end  of  the  period. 
Except  as  noted,  the  schoolroom  should  be  closed  when  the 
forced  ventilation  is  in  operation.  When  it  is  not  in  opera- 
tion, the  room  should  be  open  on  at  least  two  sides ;  transoms 
should  be  kept  in  repair  for  this  purpose.  Drafts  must  be 
avoided. 

5.  Order  and  cleanliness  of  the  room:  Children  should  be  urged  to 

take  pride  in  the  order  and  cleanliness  of  their  desks  and 
classrooms.  In  the  upper  grades  this  interest  should  be 
extended  to  the  school  and  community  through  the  forma- 
tion of  sanitary  squads,  and  pupil  health  organizations. 

6.  Immobility:  Children  should  not  be  required  to  sit  still  for  long 

periods  at  a  time,  particularly  in  the  lower  grades.  In 
addition  to  the  two  minute  drill,  games  may  be  used  when 
necessary,  and  a  short  recess  may  be  given  in  which  free 
movement  about  the  room  and  quiet  conversation  may  be 
allowed.  Immobility  may  be  relieved  also  by  alternation 
of  tasks,  standing  to  recite,  group  and  blackboard  work. 
Immediately  before  and  after  lessons  requiring  severe  con- 
centrated effort,  a  short  relaxation  is  most  helpful.  The 
children  may  be  permitted  to  rest  their  heads  upon  the 
desks  and  relax  completely  for  a  minute  or  two.  They 
should  be  called  to  strict  attention  immediately  following 
such  periods.  The  contrast  between  work  and  rest  should 
be  definite. 

7.  Leaving  the  room:  Pupils  should  not  be  restrained  from  leaving 

the  room  to  go  to  the  toilet.  If  the  teacher  suspects  that  a 
pupil  is  abusing  the  privilege,  appropriate  measures  may  be 
taken  subsequently. 

8.  Exercise:   The  two-minute  setting-up  exercises  should  be  given 

without  fail  at  10, 11,  and  2  o'clock,  or  after  each  class  period. 


APPENDIX   II  235 

The  periods  for  physical  exercise,  play,  and  recess  should 
be  strictly  observed,  and  should  be  taken  out-of-doors 
unless  the  weather  is  inclement. 

INSTRUCTION  IN  HYGIENE 
OBJECT: 

To  inculcate  habits  of  cleanliness,  and  care  of  the  body,  etc.,  in 

order  to  maintain  and  promote  good  health  and  vigor. 
METHOD  : 

The  emphasis  of  the  instruction  should  be  placed  upon  the  practical 
affairs  of  daily  life,  such  as  keeping  the  scalp  and  hair  clean, 
brushing  the  teeth,  attention  to  clothing,  study,  play,  and  rest, 
and  not  upon  theoretical  instruction  in  anatomy  and  physiology. 

During  the  first  three  years  the  pupil  should  be  told  to  do  things 
without  emphasizing  the  reasons  therefor.  Each  topic  should 
be  related  to  daily  living  and  should  affect  daily  practice. 
Stories  and  actual  illustrations  from  daily  life,  many  of  which 
may  be  supplied  by  the  children  themselves,  should  character- 
ize the  method  of  teaching  throughout  these  years. 

After  the  third  year  the  pupils  are  required  to  use  textbooks,  but 
the  method  of  applying  instruction  to  daily  practice  should 
be  continued.  The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  insure  the 
grasp  of  one  or  two  topics  in  a  lesson  and  should  not  try  to 
cover  too  much  ground.  The  result  of  the  instruction  should 
be  tested  by  inspection  and  by  questioning  the  pupils  as  to  their 
success  in  putting  into  practice  the  teaching  of  the  previous 
lessons. 

The  teacher  should  be  informed  on  the  topics  taken  up  in  the 
preceding  terms,  and  should  endeavor  to  fix  the  results  of 
previous  instruction. 

The  pupils  should  become  interested  in  the  formation  of  good 
hygienic  habits,  and  should  learn  to  apply  the  lessons  of 
personal  hygiene  to  the  home,  neighborhood,  school,  and  city. 
Student  self-governing  health  leagues  and  sanitary  squads  may 
be  formed  with  great  profit.  The  pupils  should  be  alert  to 


236         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

note  all  matters  affecting  health.     The  personal  example  and 
influence  of  the  teacher  is  of  great  importance. 

The  topics  presented  in  the  syllabus  should  be  used  frequently  for 
oral  and  written  compositions. 

The  teacher  should  use  every  possible  means  to  make  the  instruc- 
tion concrete,  particularly  by  the  use  of  "Case  Method." 
Specific  cases  of  accidents,  diseases,  disorders,  examples  of  un- 
usually good  hygiene,  should  be  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  pupil,  and  lessons  as  to  their  conduct  should  be  drawn 
therefrom.  While  this  method  is  referred  to  as  being  used  in 
the  last  lesson  in  each  term's  work,  it  should  be  used  through- 
out the  term,  whenever  opportunity  offers. 
CORRELATION  WITH  NATURE  STUDY: 

Throughout  the  term's  work,  the  teacher  should  make  constant 
reference  to  phenomena  of  plant  and  animal  life  related  to  the 
subject  in  hand.  Growth,  development,  the  need  of  food, 
water,  light,  and  air,  cleanliness,  and  the  like,  are  features  of 
plant  and  animal  life,  in  many  instances  already  familiar  to  the 
children,  which  may  be  used  as  illustrations  to  make  more 
clear  and  objective  the  instruction  in  hygiene.  In  addition,  this 
should  lead  to  a  better  knowledge  of  plants  and  animals,  and 
their  effects  upon  personal  welfare. 
SPECIAL  TOPICS: 

The  following  instructions  relating  to  special  topics  should  be  kept 
in  mind: 

1.  In  considering  topics  relating  to  home  hygiene,  care  should 

be  taken  not.  to  bring  the  pupil  into  conflict  with  home 
authority. 

2.  While  the  consideration  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco 

is  the  special  topic  for  certain  lessons,  the  state  law 
requires  that  reference  be  made  to  this  subject  in  all 
lessons  on  hygiene. 

3.  The  special  topics  on  seasonal  hygiene  may  be  taken  earlier 

or  later  in  the  term  as  seems  necessary  to  make  instruction 
timely. 


APPENDIX   II  237 

4.  The  consideration  of  any  special  topic  is  not  necessarily 

limited  to  any  special  time.  While  all  the  topics  given 
in  the  lessons  should  be  adequately  covered  during  the 
term,  the  principal  is  empowered  to  make  appropriate 
adjustments  to  neighborhood  needs. 

5.  A  special  course  on  "The  Care  of  Children"  may  be  sub- 

stituted for  older  girls.  This  course  may  be  given  in 
any  grade  from  6A  upwards  or  in  special  classes.  For 
children  who  are  taught  in  special  classes  which  prepare 
immediately  for  work,  a  special  course  on  "The  Hygiene 
of  the  Worker"  should  be  given. 

HYGIENE  SYLLABUS 

A  SAMPLE  GRADE  SYLLABUS  ILLUSTRATING  CONTENT 
AND  PRESENTATION 

GRADE  GA 
SPECIAL  TOPICS:  Digestion,  blood  circulation. 

Daily  morning  hygienic  inspection.  Observations  for  physical 
disabilities.  Daily  routine.  Emergency  measures.  Seasonal 
and  home  hygiene.  Alcohol  arid  tobacco. 

1st  and  2d  week.  The  items  of  the  daily  morning  hygienic  inspection 
as  illustrations  of  personal  hygiene.  Unsound  teeth  as  avenues 
of  entrance  for  disease  germs.  Special  attention  to  cleanliness 
of  teeth.  Pins  and  picking  teeth;  avoidance.  Good  digestion; 
sound  teeth,  thorough  chewing;  regularity  in  eating. 
3d  and  4th  week.  The  items  of  daily  routine  as  illustrations  of 
personal  hygiene.  Special  attention  to  preparation  for  meals. 
Morning  and  evening  use  of  individual  toothbrush,  water,  powder, 
and  dental  floss;  their  sanitary  care.  Regular  attention  to  lavatory 
morning  arid  evening,  an  aid  in  keeping  the  blood  free  of  poisons, 
and  in  giving  the  body  a  greater  resistance  to  disease. 
5th  and  6th  week.  Digestion.  A  simple  description  of  the  passage 
of  food  through  the  mouth,  stomach,  small  and  large  intestines; 
the  changes  which  take  place,  part  being  absorbed  into  the  system, 


238         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

the  remainder  excreted  as  waste  product.    Hygienic   application 
to  food,  mastication,  and  constipation. 

7th  and  8th  week.  Aids  to  digestion.  The  avoidance  of  overeating 
and  eating  too  fast.  The  importance  of  a  sound  set  of  teeth;  of 
masticating  thoroughly;  of  properly  selecting  and  preparing 
foods;  and  the  importance  of  leisure  and  cheerful  conversation 
at  meals. 

9th  and  10th  week.  Circulation.  A  simple  study  of  the  passage  of 
digested  food  through  the  intestinal  wall  into  blood  vessels  to 
the  heart  and  then  all  over  the  body  (in  arteries);  of  waste  products 
returned  to  the  heart  by  veins.  Demonstrate  heart  beat,  arterial 
pulse,  and  direction  of  flow  of  blood  in  veins  and  arteries. 

llth  and  1 -2th  week.  Emergency  measures.  Importance  of  immediate 
expert  medical  attention.  Toothache:  its  prevention.  Daily  care 
of  teeth  and  semi-annual  visits  to  dentist.  Use  of  proper  foods 
to  harden  enamel.  Headache:  its  prevention;  avoidance  of  drugs. 
Bleeding:  nosebleed;  its  control.  Frostbite:  its  prevention  and 
care.  Fainting:  its  care. 

13th  and  14th  week.  Home  hygiene.  Cleanliness  of  kitchen,  cook- 
ing and  eating  utensils,  ice  box.  Selection  of  food  for  lunches. 
Care  of  lunch  boxes.  Fruits  and  vegetables,  their  iron  contents 
and  laxative  properties.  Body  repair  during  sleep,  therefore 
sufficient  rest. 

loth  and  16th  week.  A'cohol  and  tobacco.  The  effect  of  alcohol  on 
the  circulation  and  digestion.  Alcohol  and  illness;  its  influence 
upon  recovery,  and  length  of  life.  Cigarette  smoking  and  irregular 
heart  action;  palpitation  of  the  heart.  Coffee  and  tea  to  be 
avoided. 

l?th  and  18th  week.  Seasonal  hygiene.  Hot  weather.  Use  of  fruits, 
vegetables,  milk,  water,  etc..  in  lessening  dangers  from  overheating 
and  sunstroke.  Danger  of  drinking  cold  water  and  alcoholic 
beverages.  Cold  weather.  Use  of  foods  that  provide  heat. 
Dana'er  of  colds  and  freezing  from  use  of  alcohol. 

19th  and  -20th  week.  Review  of  term's  work.  Emphasis  should  be 
placed  upon  work  in  sanitary  squads,  attendance  at  lectures, 


APPENDIX  II  239 

demonstrations,  and  exhibitions  of  pure  food,  temperance  leagues, 
anti-tuberculosis  societies,  anti-cigarette  leagues,  first-aid-to-the- 
injured,  etc. 

DAILY  ROUTINE 

Throughout  the  entire  course  an  endeavor  should  be  made  to  put 
into  daily  practice  the  lessons  learned  in  school.  Children  should 
be  glad  to  observe  their  environment  and  to  help  improve  conditions 
about  them.  To  further  this  end  the  lessons  of  the  third  and  fourth 
weeks  are  devoted  to  the  special  consideration  of  the  Daily  Routine 
with  particular  emphasis  upon  the  subject  assigned  to  the  term. 
The  following  methods  of  instruction  may  be  employed: 

1.  Schedules  of  the  duties  of  the  Daily  Routine. 

a.  Pupils    should   make   out,    under   the   direction   of   the 

teacher,  schedules  of  the  hygienic  duties  of  the  day. 

b.  Such    schedules    should    be    taken    home    for    constant 

reference. 

2.  Dramatic  representations  by  the  class. 

3.  Compositions  and  written  reports. 

4.  Oral  recitation  on  personal  use  of  the  Daily  Routine.    Inductive 

lesson. 

5.  Actual    demonstrations    of   the   hygienic   procedures    advised. 

Toothbrush  drill. 

6.  Daily  home  exercises. 

7.  Individual  reports  on  the  execution  at  home  of  the  main  points 

of  the  Daily  Routine  may  be  kept  by  each  pupil  and  brought 
to  school  with  or  without  the  parent's  signature. 

THE    FOLLOWING    IS    A    TYPICAL    DAILY    PROGRAM 

1.  Rise  promptly. 

2.  Take   breathing  and   setting-up   exercises   appropriate  to  the 

grade. 

3.  Wash  (warm  water  and  soap)  hands  (hand  brush),  face,  neck, 

and  chest.     Cold  splash  on  face,  neck,  and  chest.     Clean 
finger  nails. 


240         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

4.  Clean  the  teeth.     Brush  the  gums  and  the  whole  mouth  and 

rinse  the  mouth.     Drink  a  glass  of  water. 

5.  Dress  with  inspection  of  clothes  as  to  cleanliness. 

6.  Eat  slowly  at  breakfast  and  chew  well. 

7.  Visit  the  lavatory  and  wash  hands  again. 

8.  Prepare  for  school.     Books  and  clothes  clean  and  in  order. 

9.  Observe  regulations  as  to  entering  school. 

10.  Care  of  outer  clothing.     Attend  to  order  of  desk  and  prepare 

for  Morning  Hygienic  Inspection. 

11.  Keep  correct  sitting  and  standing  posture  in  school. 

12.  Drink  water  at  recess.     Use  individual  drinking  cup  or  bubble 

fountain. 

13.  Return  home  for  lunch  without  loitering.     Wash  before  lunch. 

Eat  slowly. 

14.  Play  in  fresh  air  after  school. 

15.  Study.     Pay  attention  to  lessons  and  finish  the  work. 

16.  \Aash  and  prepare  for  the  evening  meal. 

17.  Prepare  for  bed  early.     Visit  the  lavatory,  bathe,  put  clothes 

in  order,  and  open  window. 

DAILY  MORNING  HYGIENIC  INSPECTION 
TIME: 

Ten  minutes  should  be  allowed  daily  for  the  Daily  Morning 
Hygienic  Inspection.  It  should  take  place  at  the  beginning  of  the 
morning  session.  The  time  should  be  scheduled  on  the  teacher's 
daily  program. 

The  Daily  Morning  Hygienic  Inspection  must  be  efficient  in 
realizing  the  purposes  of  the  inspection,  but  the  principal  of  the 
school  is  empowered  to  adapt  it  to  the  neighborhood  needs. 

For  schools  operated  under  a  form  of  "double  session,"  the  time 
and  method  of  making  the  inspection  must  necessarily  be  adapted 
to  the  local  conditions.  A  general  preliminary  inspection  in  the 
auditorium  may  be  followed  later  by  a  more  detailed  individual 
inspection  in  the  classroom. 


APPENDIX  II  241 

PURPOSE: 

1.  To  inculcate  habits  of  personal  cleanliness  by  inspection  of  each 

pupil.  By  arousing  each  pupil's  enthusiastic  interest  and 
pride  in  his  own  personal  appearance  and  by  stimulating  a 
desire  to  attain  a  perfect  class  record  in  cleanliness,  neatness, 
and  good  health,  the  teacher  will  obtain  better  results  than 
by  emphasizing  the  deficiencies  found. 

2.  To  discover  early  signs  of  illness  and  to  prevent  contagion.     (See 

Symptoms  of  Illness  in  Children,  page  245.) 

3.  To  establish  cooperation  between  the  home  and  the  school. 

4.  To  establish  a  close  cooperation  between  the  school  medical  inspec- 

tion service  and  the  class  teacher  for  the  benefit  of  the  health 
of  the  children. 

METHOD  : 

The  following  is  a  typical  method  of  conducting  the  inspection 
when  the  class  is  seated  in  the  classroom: 

Note:  Not  all  of  the  following  items  need  be  noted   every  day, 

but  none  should  be  neglected  during  the  week. 
Heads  (especially  of  girls)  should  be  inspected  at  least 
three  times  a  week,  when  the  teacher  should  take  her 
place  near  the  window  and  the  class  should  file  past 
her.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to  chronic 
offenders.  There  should  be  a  daily  inspection  for  acute 
contagious  diseases.  It  is  not  essential  that  a  daily 
record  be  kept  of  the  conditions  found. 

A.    GENERAL  CLASS  INSPECTION 

If  the  principal  desires  to  have  a  "general  class  inspection," 
the  following  is  a  suggested  method: 

Ready  for  inspection  —  CLASS  ATTENTION !  (Note  any 
obvious  signs  of  illness.)  Coats,  sweaters,  and  rubbers 
should  be  removed. 


8         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

The  Teacher  standing  in  the  front  of  the  room  should  note 
the  following  items: 

1.  Blouses;   shirts;   dresses;    collars.      Note   cleanliness 
and  order. 

2.  Ties;  hair  ribbons;  order  of  hair. 

3.  Handkerchiefs. 

4.  Individual  toothbrushes.      The  teacher  should  ask  the 
children  who  have  individual  toothbrushes,  to  stand. 
The  increased  number  from  day  to  day  should  be 
noted.     Toothbrush   drills    should    be   practiced    in 
pantomime    during    the    hygiene   lesson    on    Daily 
Routine.     Every  effort  should  be  made  to  have  each 
child  possess  a  toothbrush. 

5.  Teeth  brushed.      Children  who  have   brushed   their 
teeth  should  be  asked  to  stand. 

6.  Nail   biting.     Pupils   who   do  not   bite  their    nails 
should  stand. 

7.  Shoes  are  inspected  by  one  of  the  following  methods : 

a.  One  row  of  children  stands  in  the  aisle.     After  the 

first  pupil  has  been  inspected  he  seats  himself 
quickly  and  quietly,  and  each  in  turn  follows 
suit,  or 

b.  The  pupils  remain  seated  but  turned  facing  the 

window  with  their  feet  in  the  aisles,  in  which 
case  the  inspection  is  made  by  the  teacher  from 
the  head  of  each  aisle. 

B.   SPECIAL  INDIVIDUAL  INSPECTION.     (For  Cleanliness,  and  Signs 
of  Illness  and  Contagion.) 

Class  at  attention.  Sleeves  are  rolled  up.  Desk  tops  are 
put  down.  Hands  and  arms  are  placed  on  the  desk 
palms  down.  Each  pupil  is  inspected  by  the  teacher 
for  the  following  points: 

1.    Hands  and  Arms  are  inspected  for  cleanliness  and 
absence  of  rash. 


APPENDIX   II  243 

2.  Nails  are  carefully  observed  as  to  cleanliness  and 
lack  of  evidence  of  biting.     Children    should   have 
their    nails    cut    short   and  should  take  a  pride  in 
their  appearance. 

3.  Teeth  are  displayed  by  having  the  lips  drawn  well 
apart.     Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  good  mouth 
hygiene.     Charts  displaying  a  clean,  even,  healthy 
set  of  teeth  may  be  hung  about  the  walls  of  the 
classroom.     The    same    plan    should    be    followed 
showing    well-trimmed    finger    nails,    clean    hands, 
shirts,  ties,  etc. 

4.  Face,  neck,  and  ears  are  finally  carefully  observed  as 
the  teacher  passes  from  child  to  child,  up  and  down 
the   aisles.     The   ears   and   neck   are   inspected   by 
having  the  child  draw  his  collar  from  the  neck  and 
turn  his  head  first  to  one  side  and  then  to  the  other. 

5.  Head.     Heads  are  bent  forward  and  the  hair  pulled  up 
from  above  and  behind  the  ears;    braids  are  pulled 
up;   uncleanliness   of   the   scalp  and  hair  is   noted. 
This  close  individual   inspection    affords   an   oppor- 
tunity for  the  teacher  to  discover  cases  of  contagion 
and  to  refer  them  for  exclusion,  to  the    principal, 
doctor,  and  nurse.    The  following  should  be  observed : 
Head    (pediculi-nits),  eyes    (discharge),  skin  (rash), 
and  the  early  signs  of  general  illness  or  contagion. 
(See  Symptoms  of  Illness,  page  "245.)  When  unhygienic 
conditions  are  discovered,  an  endeavor  should  be  made 
to  correct  them  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  occasion 
embarrassment.     Children    who   show   evidences   of 
extreme  neglect  should  be  referred  to  the  principal 
or  to  the  nurse  for  home  visits. 

A  valuable  development  of  the  morning  inspection  idea  is  made 
in  the  Modern  Health  Crusade,  address,  381  Fourth  Avenue,  New 
York  City. 


244         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

TYPICAL   TOOTHBRUSH    DRILL 

Two  or  three  children,  provided  with  toothbrushes,  dentifrice,  cups, 
water,  and  a  basin,  should  demonstrate  this  drill  before  the  class. 
Every  member  of  the  class  should  follow  the  leaders  in  pantomime. 

ATTENTION!  (All  in  line,  elbows  close  to  side,  with  brushes  in 
right  hand  and  cups  in  left.) 

1.  Ready  —  DIP  ! 

2.  Outside  Surfaces.     (Brush  inserted  under  cheek,  teeth  closed- 

Brush  gums  as  well  as  teeth.) 

Left     side  —  Ready  —  Count  1  to  16.     DIP! 

Right    " 
Front     " 

3.  Inside  Surfaces.     (Mouth  wide  open,  straight  motion  front  to 

back.) 

Upper  left     side  — Ready--  Count  1  to  16.     DIP! 

right  " 

front  " 

Lower  left  " 

right  " 

front  " 

4.  Cheicing  Surfaces  (scrubbing  vigorously). 

Upper  left     side  —  Ready  —  Count  1  to  16.     DIP! 

right    " 
Lower  left      " 

right 

5.  Empty  cups  and  refill  them  —  Ready  —  Count  1  to  16.     DIP! 

6.  Rinse  month 

7.  Rinse  brush 

(Shaking  off  excess  of  water  over  basin.) 

N.  B.  —  Counting  by  leader  should  be  rather  brisk  but  even, 
and  should  allow  plenty  of  time  for  dipping  and  shaking 
of  the  brushes. 


APPENDIX   II  245 

MATERIALS. 

1.  Toothbrushes  (brought  to  school  in  envelopes  made  by  leaders). 

2.  Dentifrice. 

3.  Individual  cups   (paper  preferably),   made  by  the  leaders  at 

home,  to  be  half  filled  with  water  by  monitor. 

4.  One  pitcher  of  water. 

5.  One  tin  basin. 

SYMPTOMS    OF    ILLNESS    IN    CHILDREN    WHICH    SHOULD    BE    OBSERVED    BY 

SCHOOL    TEACHERS 

Any  deviation  from  the  normal  in  a  previously  healthy  child  should 
always  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 

GENERAL  SYMPTOMS. 

The  beginning  of  most  children's  diseases  show  one  or  more  of  the 
following  symptoms.  Depending  upon  the  severity  of  the 
symptoms,  the  pupil  should  be  separated  from  others  and 
watched,  sent  to  the  doctor  or  nurse,  or  sent  home  to  the 
parents  with  a  written  explanation. 

Disinclination  to  study  or  play. 

General  malaise. 

Drowsiness. 

Cheeks  flushed  or  pallid. 

Fever. 

Chills. 

Vomiting. 

SPECIAL  SYMPTOMS. 

Cough.  Children  who  sneeze  or  cough  should  be  taken  from  their 
regular  seats  and  isolated  or  excluded,  if  necessary.  This  is 
most  important,  for  many  diseases  are  spread  by  sneezing 
and  coughing. 

Loss  of  weight  (Imperfect  nutrition). 

Pallor. 

Shortness  of  breath. 


246         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Frequent  requests  to  leave  the  room. 
Restlessness. 

LOCAL  SYMPTOMS. 

Pain. 

Eruptions,  rashes,  itching,  irritation  of  the  skin. 

Red  eyes  (irith  or  without  discharge).  Especially  if  accompanied 
by  any  of  the  following  symptoms  of  defective  vision:  scowling, 
squinting,  headaches,  holding  reading  matter  at  an  improper 
distance  from  the  eye. 

Running  ears  and  deafness. 

Mouth  breathing. 

Sore  throat. 

Swelling  in  the  neck.     Particularly  if  in  the  region  of  the  ear. 

OBSERVATIONS    FOR    EVIDENT    PHYSICAL    DISABILITIES 

During  the  first  week  in  October,  the  teacher  should  make  a  simple 
test  of  each  pupil's  vision  and  hearing.  During  the  first  week  in  March, 
pupils  registered  since  October  should  also  be  tested.  But  at  all  times 
teachers  should  keep  their  children  under  careful  classroom  observa- 
tion, in  order  to  discover  evident  physical  disabilities.  Every  effort 
should  be  made  to  cooperate  with  the  doctor  and  nurse  to  correct  the 
defects  found. 

EYES. 

Test:  The  Snellen  Chart  is  to  be  used  to  estimate  acuteness  of 
vision.  For  very  young  or  mentally  retarded  children,  charts 
with  numbers  or  pictures  should  be  used.  The  Snellen  Chart 
should  be  hung  in  a  good  light  (preferably  the  back  of  the 
room),  on  a  level  with  the  eyes.  The  pupil  should  be  placed 
-20  feet  from  it.  Each  eye  should  be  tested  separately,  the 
other  being  completely  covered  with  the  back  of  the  hand  or 
a  slip  of  paper  so  as  not  to  press  upon  the  eyeball.  The  pupil 
should  start  at  the  top  and  read  down.  The  number  opposite 
the  last  line  successfullv  read  should  be  recorded  as  the  de- 


APPENDIX   II  247 

nominator  of  a  fraction,  the  numerator  of  which  is  uniformally 
20.  For  instance,  if  the  70  line  is  the  last  line  read  by  the  right 
eye,  the  100  line  by  the  left  eye,  the  record  is  as  follows: 

20      20 
R  —  L- 

70     100 

20         20  20 

A  record  of  less  than  —  i.e.,  — -,  —  etc.,  is  abnormal. 
30         40  50 

Evidences  of  eyestrain,  such  as  cross-eye,  habitual  headache,  and 
weariness  after  study,  bloodshot  eyes,  crusty  lids,  should  also 
be  carefully  observed  and  recorded. 

20       20 

A  record  of  even  —  or  — ,  if  accompanied  by  any  of  these  evidences 
20       30 

of  eyestrain  (S),  is  abnormal,  and  is  recorded  as  follows: 

20  20 

R  —  (S)  L  - 
20  30 

Referring  Cases:  All  cases  of  defects  should  be  referred  to  the 
school  doctor  or  nurse  for  further  examination. 

EARS. 

Children  with  running  ears,  and  those  who  do  not  hear  questions 
readily  and  frequently  ask  for  repetition,  should  be  referred  to 
the  doctor  or  nurse.  Inquiry  regarding  earache  should  be 
made  and  any  case  of  discharge  noted.  A  record  of  all  defective 
cases  should  be  made,  and  they  should  be  referred  to  the  doctor 
or  nurse. 

TEETH. 

The  presence  of  cavities,  green  deposits,  sore  and  spongy  gums 
should  be  observed.  Xo  time  should  be  wasted  in  counting 
the  number  of  cavities,  as  one  small  cavity  is  sufficient  to 
indicate  the  need  for  treatment. 


*48         THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

All  defective  cases  should  be  recorded  and  referred  to  the  doctor 
or  nurse.  These  children  should  be  encouraged  to  visit  a 
dentist. 

DEFECTIVE  NASAL  BREATHING. 

The  teacher  is  in  constant  contact  with  the  child  and  may  easily 

note  signs  of  defective  nasal  breathing. 
Habitual  mouth  breathing,  chronic  nasal  discharge,  frequent  colds, 

are  indications  of  defective  nasal  breathing.     Such  cases  should 

be  referred  to  the  doctor  or  nurse. 

Xote:  Children  unusually  pale,  thin,  and  puny,  underweight  for 
their  height,  and  lacking  in  vitality,  should  be  referred  to  the 
doctor  or  nurse. 

HYGIENIC  INSTRUCTIONS 

The  teacher  in  using  this  text  will  find  special  bulletins  and  circulars 
of  instruction,  issued  by  the  New  York  State  and  City  Departments 
of  Health,  and  other  health  agencies,  most  useful  in  giving  a  back- 
ground for  the  teaching  of  the  subject.  When  necessary,  pupils 
should  be  furnished  with  circulars  of  instructions  to  parents  on  The 
Care  of  the  Nose,  The  Care  of  the  Mouth  and  Teeth,  The  Care  of 
Children's  Hair  and  Scalp,  The  ("are  of  the  Eyes,  all  of  which,  issued 
by  the  New  York  City  Department  of  Heath,  will  be  supplied  upon 
application  to  1'59  Centre  Street,  New  York  City.  Additional 
pamphlets  of  interest  to  teachers,  among  which  are  the  following, 
may  be  obtained  by  sending  a  two  cent  stamp  for  postage  to  the 
New  York  State  Department  of  Health,  Albany,  New  York.  (Other 
cities  and  states  made  similar  provisions.) 

Special  Bulletin  No.  "2  —  Regulations  for  Cleansing  and  Disinfection. 

Circular  No.  1  —  The  /•'////>//  7-Y//. 

Habits  and  life  history  of  the  fly.     Prevention  of  breeding.     How 
to  trap  flies. 

Circular  \o.  4  —  The  Food  of  the  Kahi/. 

Food  the  baby  requires  and  how  to  prepare  it.     Rules  for  bottle 
feeding. 


APPENDIX   II  249 

Circular  No.  5  —  The  Summer  Care  of  Babies. 

Care   of    breast-fed   and    bottle-fed    babies.     How    to    prevent 

diarrhea. 

Circular  No.  6  —  Care  of  Milk  in  the  Home. 
How  to  safeguard  the  milk  for  your  baby.     Directions  for  making 

a  homemade  ice  box. 
Circular  No.  8  —  Avoid  Infection. 

How  the  baby  may  be  kept  free  from  disease.     Things  which  are 

bad  for  all  babies. 
Circular  No.  10  —  Your  Baby  —  How  to  Keep  It  \Vcll. 

A  28-page  booklet  of  advice  on  preparation  for  motherhood,  nurs- 
ing, feeding,  and  care  of  the  baby. 
Circular  No.  11  —  Smallpox. 

How  to  detect  the  loathsome  disease.     How  this  disease  spreads 
and  how  it  may  be  avoided.     Directions  for  care  of  patients. 
Circular  No.  12  —  Vaccination. 

Care  in  cases  of   vaccination,  so  as  to  avoid  sore  arms  or  other 

harmful  results. 
Circular  No.  13  —  The  Teacher  and  Communicable  Disease. 

How  disease  is  caused  and  how  it  spreads.     Symptoms  by  which 

the  teacher  may  detect  communicable  disease. 
Circular  No.  15  —  Scarlet  Fever. 

How  it  may  be  detected.     How  it  spreads  and  how  it  may  be 

avoided. 
Circular  No.  16  —  Typhoid  Fever. 

Information  for  those  who    take  care  of  the  patient  in  regard 

to  the  spread  and  prevention  of  typhoid  fever, 
Circular  No.  17  —  Measles. 

Information    for    parents   and    for  those  who  take  care  of  the 

patient  in  regard  to  the  spread  and  prevention  of  measles. 
Circular  No.  18  —  Whooping  Cough. 

Information  for  parents  and  for  those  who  take  care  of  the  patient 

in  regard  to  the  spread  and  prevention  of  whooping  cough. 
Circular  No.  20 —  Tuberculosis  (Consumption}. 

What  it  is.    How  it  spreads  and  how  it  maybe  avoided.    (Folder.) 


250         THE   PEDAGOGY  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Circular   Xo.  22  —  Sore  Eyes  of  New-born  Babies.     Directions  for 

preventing  infant  blindness. 
Circular  No.  23  —  Diphtheria. 

Information  for  parents  and  for  those  who  take  care   of  the 
patient  in  regard  to  the  spread  and  prevention  of  diphtheria. 
Safety  First  for  Children. 

A  book  of  story  and  verse  intended  to  help  in  the  work  of  saving 
hum-in  life.  Distributed  by  the  Safety  First  Federation  of 
America,  New  York  City. 


INDEX 


Accuracy,  144,  226;  aids  to,  144;  in  in- 
troductory work,  58. 

Action,  reflex,  130. 

Adjustment,  of  body  to  exercise,  198; 
definition  of  good,  G7;  essentials  of 
good,  67. 

Aims  of  physical  training,  major,  23. 

"Air  Push,"  88. 

Alertness,  145,  226;   of  teacher,  17. 

Analysis  in  teaching,  141. 

Apparatus,  methods  of  handling,  56; 
placing  on  floor,  222. 

Area,  kinesthetic,  135;  motor,  134;  sen- 
sory, 135. 

Arteries  affected  by  exercise,  97. 

Aspiration  of  the  thorax,  76. 

Assembly  on  spots,  51. 

Association  in  teaching,  176-178. 

Attention,  initial  use  of,  47;  involuntary, 
170;  in  relation  to  remembering,  167; 
rhythms  in,  171;  voluntary,  170. 

Attitude,  student,  6 

Board,  bulletin,  56. 

Breathing  affected  by  exercise,  196. 

Cerebellum,  132. 

Charging,  208. 

"Chest  out"  discarded,  86. 

"Chin  in"  discarded,  S6. 

Circulation,  accessory,  190. 

Circulatory  efficiency,  percentage  of,  71. 

Class,  control  of,  48-50;  counting  the, 
54;  distribution  of,  50;  establishing 
control  of,  47;  feeling,  60;  formation 


of,  51;  inspection  of,  55;  opinion  of, 
48;  solidarity  of,  60. 

Class  distribution,  methods  of,  50. 

Class  formation,  military  method  of,  53. 

Commands,  counting  in,  40;  descriptive 
cues  in,  42;  establishment  of  rhythm 
in,  38;  executive  part  in  response,  36, 
215;  executive  part  of  rhythmic,  216; 
flag  signals  in,  43;  forms  of,  30;  gym- 
nastic, 30;  halting,  42;  irregular 
rhythm  in,  41;  music  in,  40;  pause  in 
response,  33;  preparatory  part  of  re- 
sponse, 31;  purpose  of,  30;  response, 
30,  215;  rhythm  accented  in,  42; 
rhythmic1,  37,  216;  sequence  variation 
in  response,  35;  variation  in  pause  in 
response,  35. 

Complexity,  157. 

Concentration,  principle  of,  26;  principle 
applied  to  educational  exercises,  153. 

Condition,  Crampton  Scale  of,  71. 

Consciousness,  class,  59. 

Constipation,  exercise  for,  104. 

Contraction,  concentric,  186;  excentric, 
185;  static,  186. 

Contraction  and  relaxation,  abdominal, 
102. 

Control,  objective.  1,'!!);    subjective,  139. 

Coordinations,  140,  157;  new,  158;  suc- 
cessive, 159. 

Corrective  work,  definition  of,  66. 

Countermanding.  63. 

Cues,  descriptive.  42;  elevation,  84,  228; 
for  good  posture,  50;  mental,  180;  in 
remembering,  181. 


253 


254 


INDEX 


Day's  order,  22. 
"  Debutante  slouch,"  92. 
Demonstration  in  good  posture,  83. 
Disabilities,  observation  for,  247. 
Disharmonies,   circulatory,   75;    skeletal, 

74;   visceral,  75. 
Dosage,  208. 

Ease,  principle  of,  in  good  posture,  68. 

Educational  work,  results  of,  143;  speed 
in,  147. 

Effects  of  muscular  contraction,  188-200; 
chemical,  191-193;  classification  of, 
188;  local,  100;  mechanical,  190. 

Efficiency  and  posture,  76. 

"Elbow  Lift,"  89. 

"Emergency  jumps,"  155. 

English,  use  of,  11. 

Executive  part  in  response  commands, 
36,  215. 

Executive  part  in  rhythmic  commands, 
216. 

Exercise,  massage,  an  effect  of,  200; 
nervous  effects  of  muscular,  194;  teach- 
ing a  typical,  162. 

Exercises,  abdominal,  99,  207;  blood 
pressure  affected  by,  195-197;  cards 
for,  40;  choice  of,  26;  circulatory  ef- 
fects of  muscular,  194;  complexity  in 
educational,  157;  digestive  tract  af- 
fected by,  19S;  educational,  152-166; 
extension  element  in  hygienic,  201;  fa- 
miliarity in  educational,  157;  for  future 
use,  15  !•  159;  future  use  of  educa- 
tional, 153;  general  effects  of.  19S; 
heart  rate  affected  by,  196;  heavy, 
209;  hygienic,  201;  in  later  life,  154; 
learning  of,  159-161;  mimetic.  205; 
name.-,  for,  176  ISO;  neck,  9-2;  or- 
ganic, 1S3;  relation  of,  t  good  posture, 
109;  selection  of  hygienic.  203;  shoul- 
der Made,  111;  stretching,  219;  sus- 


tentacular,     92;      teaching,     159-161; 
trunk,  206. 
"Expression"  in  educational  work,  150. 

Facing,  219. 

Fatigue,     199;      prevented     by     correct 

dosage,  208. 
Feeling,  class,  60. 
"Fist  Lift,"  89. 
Flag  signals  as  commands,  43. 
Flatfoot,  exercises  for,  155. 
Formation  of  class,  50. 
Forms  of  commands,  30. 

Grace,  148. 

Grades  of  posture,  124. 
Gymnasium,  preparation  for,  46. 
Gymnastic  command,  30. 

Halting  commands,  42. 
Happiness,  habit  of,  15. 
Hopping,  205  206. 
Hygiene  in  posture  work,  107. 

Illness,  symptoms  of,  246. 

Immobility,  234. 

"Impression"  in  educational  work,  149. 

Industry,  good  posture  in,  67. 

Information,  hygienic,  249. 

Inhibition.  146.  225. 

Inspection,  of  class.  55;  hygienic,  240; 
morning  hygienic,  240. 

Instruction,  hygienic,  232-235. 

Instructions  for  exeicise.  general,  219. 

Intensity,  physiological,  of  exercises,  202. 

Interest.  169;    and  pain,  169. 

Introductory  work,  administrative  phase 
of.  46  58;  blood  flow  in,  62:  breath- 
ing in,  61:  individual  response1  in,  58; 
military  movements  in,  59;  muscular 
warming  up  in.  61;  physiological  phase 
of,  61;  psychological  phase  of,  58; 


INDEX 


255 


purpose  of,  45;   running  in,  63;   warm- 
ing up  in,  61. 
Isolation,  140. 

Jar,  an  effect  of  exercise,  200. 
Knee  bending,  208. 

Large  muscles,  use  of,  in  hygienic  exer- 
cises, 203. 

Later  life,  use  of  exercises  in,  1,54. 

Learning,  psychological  process  in,  159- 
101. 

Learning  process,  value  of,  155. 

Lea\ing  the  room,  234. 

Lesson,  mental  work  in,  25;  typical,  228- 
229. 

Lesson  plan,  21;  functional  basis  of,  24; 
principles  of,  22;  psychological  process 
in,  100-171;  sequence  of,  28. 

Light  in  classroom,  233. 

Maladjustment,  hereditary,  74. 

Marching,  219. 

Massage,  an  effect  of  exercise,  200;  neck, 
94. 

Mechanical  effects  of  muscular  contrac- 
tion, immediate,  190;  remote,  191. 

Mechanism,  motor,  127. 

Memory,  107;  elements  of,  107:  voli- 
tional, 173. 

Mental  results,  reflex,  149. 

Mental  training,  aesthetic,  149. 

Method,  analytic-synthetic,  141;  mi- 
metic-objective, 142. 

Mind,  receptivity,  171. 

Motor  area,  133. 

Motor  mechanism,  127. 

Motor  nerves,  128. 

Motor  nuclei,  automatic,  132. 

Motor  skill,  126. 

Movement,  arc  of,  138;    automatic,  133; 


control  of,  139;  definite,  138;  economy 
in,  148;  habitual,  137;  indefinite,  138; 
instinctive,  136;  natural,  137;  rising, 
112;  types  of,  136;  unnatural,  137. 

Muscles,  184;  anatomy  of,  185-187; 
chemical  composition  of,  188;  con- 
traction of,  185;  as  part  of  motor 
mechanism,  128. 

Muscle  shortening,  principle  of,  96. 

Muscular  contraction,  immediate  effects 
of,  191;  immediate  general  effects  of, 
193;  remote  effects  of,  193. 

Muscular  tone,  187;  elements  of,  78; 
nervous  element  of,  79. 

Music  in  commands,  40. 

Neck  exercises,  92. 

"Neck  massage,"  94. 

Nerves,  motor,  128;    sensory,  129-130. 

Nervous  effects  of  muscular  exercise,  194. 

Nervous  element  in  muscular  tone,  79. 

Nuclei,  automatic  motor,  132. 

Objective  termination,  in  knee  bending, 
208;  in  selection  of  hygienic  exercises, 
207. 

\iin  and  interest,  169. 

'a use  in  response  commands,  33,  215. 

Vrsonality,  definition  of,  14. 

'hysical  disabilities,  observations  for,  247. 

'hysical  education,  definition  of,  126. 

'hysical  record,  card  for,  55. 

'hysical  training,  definition  of,  1;  field 
of,  4;  profession  of,  3;  purpose  of,  1, 
213. 

Physiological  intensity  of  exercises,  202 
Physiological  work,  183;    in  lesson,  24. 
Pleasure  and  interest,  169. 
Popularity,  16. 

Posture,  "A-l,"  123;  corrective  work 
for,  223-224;  dance  positions  in  good, 


256 


INDEX 


113;  definition  of  good,  66;  demon- 
stration in  good,  83;  depression  in  bad, 
82;  description  of,  223;  digestion  re- 
lated to  good,  108;  ease  in  good,  68; 
and  efficiency,  76;  while  exercising, 
109;  experience  in  good,  83;  extension 
element  emphasized  for  good,  110; 
grades  of,  124;  grouping,  223;  indi- 
rect work  for  good,  105;  measurement 
of,  117;  monthly  tests  for,  224;  poster 
for,  122;  rating,  121:  in  sitting,  224; 
of  teacher,  18;  tests,  114-121,  223;  use 
of  motives  in,  113;  and  vitality,  77. 

Posture  work,  appeal  to  pride  in,  106; 
manual  correction  in,  87;  mental  atti- 
tude in,  10.5;  mirror  in,  87;  use  of  in- 
centives in,  113-114. 

Practice  in  teaching  an  exercise,  161. 

Preparation  for  the  lesson,  46;  methods 
of,  63. 

Preparatory  part,  response  commands  in, 
31,  215;  rhythmic  commands  in,  38, 
216. 

Processes,  educational,  154. 

Program,  daily  hygienic,  239. 

Pronunciation,  11. 

Ptosis,  circulatory,  70;  correlation  of,  74; 
definition  of,  69;  emotional,  73;  skele- 
tal, 70;  visceral,  70. 

Pumps,  accessory,  197. 

Recalling,  175. 

Records,  54;  at  tendance,  54;  gymnastic,  55. 

Record  card,  pupil's,  55. 

Recreative  work,  211. 

Reflex,  mental  results,  149. 

Reflex  action,  130. 

Reflex  arc.  131. 

Relaxation,  of  attention,  121;    muscular, 

185. 
Relaxation  in  introductory  work,  arterial, 

62. 


Remembering,  167-182. 

Repetition,  principle  of,  in  selection  of 
hygienic  exercises,  204. 

Response  commands,  30,  215. 

Results,  educational,  225. 

Results  of  exercise,  differences  in,  26. 

Retrial  in  teaching  an  exercise,  161. 

Rhythm,  accented,  in  commands,  42;  es- 
tablishment of,  in  commands,  38;  in 
hygienic  exercises,  203;  irregular,  in 
commands,  41. 

Rhythmic  commands,  37,  216. 

Rhythmical  response  commands,  59. 

Roll  call,  54. 

Routine,  daily,  239. 

Running,  205. 

Seating,  233. 

Second  wind,  198. 

Sense,  kinesthetic,  174. 

Sequence  variation  in  response  com- 
mands, 35. 

"Shoulders  back"  discarded,  86. 

"Side  Lift,"  90. 

Simplicity,  in  educational  exercises,  144 
156;   in  hygienic  exercises,  203. 

Skill,  motor,  126. 

Skipping,  205. 

"Sky  Lift,"  89. 

"Slouch  class,"  116. 

Snellen  Charts,  247. 

Soreness,  muscular,  192. 

Speed  in  selection  of  exercises,  204. 

Spinal  cord,  cross  section  of,  131;  longi- 
tudinal section  of,  129. 

Spinal  reflex,  130. 

State  of  exercise,  194. 

Static  exercises,  87-92. 

Supervisors,  duties  of  local,  227. 

Surprise,  principles  of,  146. 

Syllabus,  hygiene,  232;  physical  train- 
ing, 213. 


INDEX 


257 


Symptoms  of  illness,  246. 
Synchronizing  the  class,  59. 
Synthesis  in  teaching,  142. 

Tact,  15. 

Taking  apparatus,  57. 

Taking  distance,  219. 

Teacher,  cleanliness  of,  19;  clothing  of, 
20;  essentials  of,  8;  example  of,  20; 
health  of,  12;  ideals  of,  G;  manner  of, 
17;  mental  equipment  of,  6;  physical 
equipment  of,  12. 

Teachers'  instructions,  213-214. 

Teaching,  by  association,  177;  clearness 
in,  172;  principle  of  contrast  in,  173; 
demonstration,  164;  emphasis  in,  172; 
by  idea,  178;  by  imitation,  177;  inhi- 
bition in,  18;  psychological  processes 
in,  159-161;  repetition  in,  179;  steps 
in,  163-16C;  synthesis  in,  142. 

Teeth,  relation  of,  to  good  posture,  108. 

Temperature,  233, 


Test,  condition,  71;   ptosis,  71. 

Tone,  76-77;   of  muscles,  187. 

Toothbrush  drill,  245. 

Trade  movements,  learning,  158. 

Triple  posture  test,  114. 

Trophic  force,  79. 

Two  minute  drill,  217. 

Typical  exercise,  teaching  a,  162. 

Variations,  in  lesson  plan,  29;    in  pause 

in  response  commands,  35. 
Ventilation,  233. 
Vitality  and  posture,  77. 
Voice,  use  of,  19;    variation  of,  146. 
Volitional  memory,  173. 
Voluntary  attention,  170. 

Wall,  use  of,  in  good  posture,  85. 

Work,    educational,    126-151;     hygienic, 

183;  posture,  see  Posture  work;  results 

of  educational,  143. 
"Wrist  Lift,"  89. 


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